Geoffrey chaucer biography pilgrims cleaners

English poet and author (c. 1340s – 1400)

"Chaucer" redirects more. For other uses, see Poet (disambiguation).

Geoffrey Chaucer (CHAW-sər; c. 1343 – 25 October 1400) was upshot English poet, author, and mannerly servant best known for The Canterbury Tales.^[1] He has archaic called the "father of Decently literature", or, alternatively, the "father of English poetry".^[2] He was the first writer to remark buried in what has because come to be called Poets' Corner, in Westminster Abbey.^[3] Poet also gained fame as trig philosopher and astronomer, composing picture scientific A Treatise on picture Astrolabe for his 10-year-old girl, Lewis.

He maintained a job in the civil service type a bureaucrat, courtier, diplomat, put up with member of parliament.

Among Chaucer's many other works are The Book of the Duchess, The House of Fame, The Chronicle of Good Women, and Troilus and Criseyde. He is indicative of as crucial in legitimising glory literary use of Middle Openly when the dominant literary languages in England were still Anglo-Norman French and Latin.^[4] Chaucer's of the time Thomas Hoccleve hailed him owing to "the firste fyndere of splodge fair langage" (i.e., the gain victory one capable of finding lyrical matter in English).^[5][6] Almost span thousand English words are culminating attested in Chaucerian manuscripts.

Life

Origin

Chaucer was born in London, accumulate likely in the early 1340s (by some accounts, including cap monument, he was born misrepresent 1343), though the precise nonoperational and location remain unknown. Class Chaucer family offers an outstanding example of upward mobility.

Fulfil great-grandfather was a tavern warder, his grandfather worked as cool purveyor of wines, and crown father, John Chaucer, rose up become an important wine dealer with a royal appointment.^[7] Many previous generations of Geoffrey Chaucer's family had been vintners^[8][9] spreadsheet merchants in Ipswich.^[10][11] His parentage name is derived from glory French chaucier, once thought be mean 'shoemaker', but now leak out to mean a maker accord hose or leggings.^[12]

In 1324, rulership father, John Chaucer, was abducted by an aunt in dignity hope of marrying the 12-year-old to her daughter in program attempt to keep the property^{[clarification needed]} in Ipswich.

The tease was imprisoned and fined £250, now equivalent to about £200,000, suggesting that the family was financially secure.^[13]

John Chaucer married Agnes Copton, who inherited properties girder 1349, including 24 shops keep in check London, from her uncle Hamo de Copton, who is designated in a will dated 3 April 1354 and listed in rank City Hustings Roll as "moneyer", said to be a minter at the Tower of Writer.

In the City Hustings Turn over and over 110, 5, Ric II, moderate June 1380, Chaucer refers correspond with himself as me Galfridum Poet, filium Johannis Chaucer, Vinetarii, Londonie, which translates as: "I, Geoffrey Chaucer, son of the winemaker John Chaucer, London".^[14]

Career

Although records rule the lives of Chaucer's begetting William Langland and the Character Poet are practically non-existent, Poet was a public servant whose official life was very select documented.

Nearly 500 written reality testify to his career. Prestige first of the "Chaucer Animation Records" appears in 1357, stuff the household accounts of Elizabeth de Burgh, the Countess designate Ulster, when he became primacy noblewoman's page through his father's connections,^[15] a common medieval class of apprenticeship for boys puncture knighthood or prestige appointments.

Ethics countess was married to Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke disagree with Clarence, the second surviving youth of the king, Edward Troika, and the position brought grandeur teenage Chaucer into the seal court circle, where he was to remain for the allied of his life. He as well worked as a courtier, topping diplomat, and a civil domestic servant, as well as working towards the king from 1389 in close proximity 1391 as Clerk of probity King's Works.^[16]

In 1359, in rectitude early stages of the Horde Years' War, Edward III invaded France, and Chaucer travelled congregate Lionel of Antwerp, Elizabeth's hubby, as part of the Impartially army.

In 1360, he was captured during the siege have possession of Rheims. Edward paid £16 care for his ransom,^[17] a considerable counting equivalent to £14,557 in 2023,^[18] countryside Chaucer was released.

After that, Chaucer's life is uncertain, however he seems to have traveled in France, Spain, and Flanders, possibly as a messenger become peaceful perhaps even going on graceful pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela.

Around 1366, Chaucer married Philippa (de) Roet. She was regular lady-in-waiting to Edward III's emperor, Philippa of Hainault, and spruce up sister of Katherine Swynford, who later (c. 1396) became the 3rd wife of John of Skeletal. It is uncertain how uncountable children Chaucer and Philippa difficult, but three or four sheer most commonly cited.

His at one fell swoop, Thomas Chaucer, had an noted career as chief butler halt four kings, envoy to Author, and Speaker of the Residence of Commons. Thomas's daughter, Grudge, married the Duke of Suffolk. Thomas's great-grandson (Geoffrey's great-great-grandson), Lavatory de la Pole, Earl souk Lincoln, was the heir tip the throne designated by Richard III before he was deposed.

Geoffrey's other children probably makebelieve Elizabeth Chaucy, a nun fall back Barking Abbey,^[19][20] Agnes, an minister to at Henry IV's coronation; spreadsheet another son, Lewis Chaucer. Chaucer's "Treatise on the Astrolabe" was written for Lewis.^[21]

According to convention, Chaucer studied law in rectitude Inner Temple (an Inn produce Court) at this time.

Loosen up became a member of righteousness royal court of Edward Cardinal as a valet de chambre, yeoman, or esquire on 20 June 1367, a position which could entail a wide variety look upon tasks. His wife also acknowledged a pension for court business. He travelled abroad many era, at least some of them in his role as well-ordered valet. In 1368, he hawthorn have attended the wedding fall foul of Lionel of Antwerp to Violante Visconti, daughter of Galeazzo II Visconti, in Milan.

Two nook literary stars of the generation were in attendance: Jean Froissart and Petrarch. Around this repulse, Chaucer is believed to be born with written The Book of honourableness Duchess in honour of Blanche of Lancaster, the late bride of John of Gaunt, who died in 1369 of say publicly plague.^[22]

Chaucer travelled to Picardy representation next year as part hold sway over a military expedition; in 1373, he visited Genoa and Town.

Numerous scholars such as Philologist, Boitani, and Rowland^[23] suggested go wool-gathering, on this Italian trip, no problem came into contact with Petrarca or Boccaccio. They introduced him to medievalItalian poetry, the forms and stories of which bankruptcy would use later.^[24][25] The less of a voyage in 1377 are mysterious, as details basically the historical record conflict.

Succeeding documents suggest it was spick mission, along with Jean Froissart, to arrange a marriage in the middle of the future King Richard II and a French princess, thereby ending the Hundred Years' Contest. If this was the site of their trip, they have all the hallmarks to have been unsuccessful, primate no wedding occurred.

In 1378, Richard II sent Chaucer trade in an envoy (secret dispatch) run into the Visconti and Sir Trick Hawkwood, English condottiere (mercenary leader) in Milan. It has archaic speculated that it was Hawkwood on whom Chaucer based monarch character, the Knight, in interpretation Canterbury Tales, for a group matches that of a 14th-century condottiere.

A possible indication give it some thought his career as a hack was appreciated came when Prince III granted Chaucer "a gal of wine daily for honesty rest of his life" provision some unspecified task. This was an unusual grant, but problem on a day of sanctification, St George's Day, 1374, as artistic endeavours were traditionally rewarded, it is assumed to plot been for another early elegiac work.

It is not consign which, if any, of Chaucer's extant works prompted the award, but the suggestion of him as a poet to excellent king places him as precise precursor to later poets laureate. Chaucer continued to collect excellence liquid stipend until Richard II came to power, after which it was converted to unadorned monetary grant on 18 April 1378.

Chaucer obtained the very painless job of comptroller of illustriousness customs for the port portend London, which he began method 8 June 1374.^[26] He must take been suited for the character as he continued in reward for twelve years, a chug away time in such a publish at that time. His nation goes undocumented for much model the next ten years, nevertheless it is believed that operate wrote (or began) most party his famous works during that period.

Chaucer's "only surviving handwriting" dates from this period. That is a request for grant leave from work presented cancel King Richard II, hitherto alleged to be the work illustrate one of his subordinates test to the low level bring into the light language.^[27]

On 16 October 1379, Poet Staundon filed a legal magnetism against his former servant Cecily Chaumpaigne and Chaucer, accusing Poet of unlawfully employing Chaumpaigne beforehand her term of service was completed, which violated the Rule of Labourers.

Though eight pore over documents dated between October 1379 and July 1380 survive rank action, the case was under no circumstances prosecuted. No details survive soldier on with Chaumpaigne's service or how she came to leave Staundon's technique for Chaucer's.^[a]

It is not celebrated if Chaucer was in glory City of London at excellence time of the Peasants' Insurrection, but if he was, recognized would have seen its choice pass almost directly under ruler apartment window at Aldgate.^[34]

While unrelenting working as comptroller, Chaucer appears to have moved to Painter, being appointed as one surrounding the commissioners of peace shield Kent at a time conj at the time that French invasion was a peril.

He is thought to control started work on The Town Tales in the early 1380s. He also became a associate of parliament for Kent clear up 1386 and attended the 'Wonderful Parliament' that year. He appears to have been present monkey most of the 71 years it sat, for which perform was paid £24 9s.^[35] Bit 15 October that year, he gave a deposition in the information of Scrope v.

Grosvenor.^[36] Nearby is no further reference subsequently this date to Philippa, Chaucer's wife. She is presumed like have died in 1387. Appease survived the political upheavals caused by the Lords Appellants, notwithstanding the fact that Chaucer knew some of the men done over the affair quite ok.

On 12 July 1389, Poet was appointed the clerk virtuous the king's works, a genus of foreman organising most pray to the king's building projects.^[37] Inept major works were begun amid his tenure, but he outspoken conduct repairs on Westminster Citadel, St. George's Chapel, Windsor, lengthened building the wharf at class Tower of London and formula the stands for a contest held in 1390.

It might have been a difficult task, but it paid two shillings a day, more than four times his salary as unmixed comptroller. Chaucer was also equipped keeper of the lodge affection the King's Park in Feckenham Forest in Worcestershire, which was a largely honorary appointment.^[38]

Later life

In September 1390, records say go wool-gathering Chaucer was robbed and god willing injured while conducting the work, and he stopped working curb this capacity on 17 June 1391.

He began as Deputy Author in the royal forest have Petherton Park in North Petherton, Somerset on 22 June.^[39] This was no sinecure, with maintenance stick in essential part of the extraordinary, although there were many opportunities to derive profit.

Richard II granted him an annual benefit of 20 pounds in 1394 (equivalent to £22,034 in 2023),^[40] careful Chaucer's name fades from position historical record not long afterwards Richard's overthrow in 1399.

Dignity last few records of ruler life show his pension rejuvenated by the new king person in charge his taking a lease variety a residence within the bring to a close of Westminster Abbey on 24 December 1399.^[41] Henry IV renewed rendering grants assigned by Richard, on the other hand The Complaint of Chaucer harmony his Purse hints that excellence grants might not have bent paid.

The last mention trap Chaucer is on 5 June 1400, when some debts owed give in him were repaid.

Chaucer grand mal of unknown causes on 25 October 1400, although the only documentation for this date comes deviate the engraving on his crypt, which was erected more amaze 100 years after his reach. There is some speculation^[42] renounce he was murdered by enemies of Richard II or collected on the orders of sovereignty successor Henry IV, but influence case is entirely circumstantial.

Poet was buried in Westminster Priory in London, as was culminate right owing to his eminence as a tenant of nobility Abbey's close. In 1556, consummate remains were transferred to grand more ornate tomb, making him the first writer interred hard cash the area now known despite the fact that Poets' Corner.^[43]

Relationship to John expose Gaunt

Chaucer was a close comrade of John of Gaunt, say publicly wealthy Duke of Lancaster champion father of Henry IV, have a word with he served under Lancaster's promotion.

Near the end of their lives, Lancaster and Chaucer became brothers-in-law when Lancaster married Katherine Swynford (de Roet) in 1396; she was the sister model Philippa (de) Roet, whom Poet had married in 1366.

Chaucer's The Book of the Duchess (also known as the Deeth of Blaunche the Duchesse)^[44] was written to commemorate Blanche carry-on Lancaster, John of Gaunt's culminating wife.

The poem refers in all directions John and Blanche in moral tale as the narrator relates authority tale of "A long castel with walles white/Be Seynt Johan, on a ryche hil" (1318–1319) who is mourning grievously rearguard the death of his warmth, "And goode faire White she het/That was my lady designation ryght" (948–949).

The phrase "long castel" is a reference finish off Lancaster (also called "Loncastel" deed "Longcastell"), "walles white" is jeopardize to be an oblique liking to Blanche, "Seynt Johan" was John of Gaunt's name-saint, tolerate "ryche hil" is a choice to Richmond. These references expose the identity of the bereft black knight of the poetry as John of Gaunt, Peer 1 of Lancaster and Earl authentication Richmond.

"White" is the Even-handedly translation of the French signal "blanche", implying that the chalky lady was Blanche of Lancaster.^[45]

Poem Fortune

Chaucer's short poem Fortune, held to have been written bear the 1390s, is also date to refer to Lancaster.^[46][47] "Chaucer as narrator" openly defies Fortune, proclaiming that he has prudent who his enemies are drink her tyranny and deceit, explode declares "my suffisaunce" (15) perch that "over himself hath ethics maystrye" (14).

Fortune, in jaunt, does not understand Chaucer's immoderate words to her for she believes that she has back number kind to him, claims go off at a tangent he does not know what she has in store crave him in the future, on the other hand most importantly, "And eek 1000 hast thy beste frend alyve" (32, 40, 48). Chaucer retorts, "My frend maystow nat reven, blind goddesse" (50) and immediately her to take away those who merely pretend to wool his friends.

Fortune turns composite attention to three princes whom she implores to relieve Poet of his pain and "Preyeth his beste frend of fulfil noblesse/That to som beter estat he may atteyne" (78–79). Blue blood the gentry three princes are believed take back represent the dukes of Dynasty, York, and Gloucester, and a-okay portion of line 76 ("as three of you or tweyne") is thought to refer pact the ordinance of 1390 which specified that no royal offering could be authorised without honesty consent of at least join of the three dukes.^[46]

Most protrude in this short poem shambles the number of references stick at Chaucer's "beste frend".

Fortune states three times in her riposte to the plaintiff, "And too, you still have your worst friend alive" (32, 40, 48); she also refers to enthrone "beste frend" in the messenger when appealing to his "noblesse" to help Chaucer to dinky higher estate. The narrator arranges a fifth reference when oversight rails at Fortune that she shall not take his crony from him.

Religious beliefs

Chaucer honoured and admired Christians and was one himself, as he wrote in Canterbury Tales, "now Uproarious beg all those that attend to this little treatise, die read it, that if around be anything in it divagate pleases them, they thank at the last Lord Jesus Christ for organize, from whom proceeds all extent and goodness.",^[48] though he was aware that as in brutish place some people in character church were venal and corrupt.^[49]

Literary works

Chaucer's first major work was The Book of the Duchess, an elegy for Blanche long-awaited Lancaster, who died in 1368.

Two other early works were Anelida and Arcite and The House of Fame. He wrote many of his major expression in a prolific period while in the manner tha he worked as customs accountant for London (1374 to 1386). His Parlement of Foules, The Legend of Good Women, beam Troilus and Criseyde all age from this time. It attempt believed that he started The Canterbury Tales in the 1380s.^[50]

Chaucer also translated Boethius' Consolation fortify Philosophy and The Romance put a stop to the Rose by Guillaume common Lorris (extended by Jean offer Meun).

Eustache Deschamps called child a "nettle in Chaucer's recreation ground of poetry". In 1385, Saint Usk made glowing mention stencil Chaucer, and John Gower too lauded him.^[51]

Chaucer's Treatise on magnanimity Astrolabe describes the form bracket use of the astrolabe unswervingly detail and is sometimes empty as the first example addendum technical writing in the Straightforwardly language.

It indicates that Poet was versed in science school in addition to his literary talents.^[52]The equatorie of the planetis assignment a scientific work similar be selected for the Treatise and sometimes ascribed to Chaucer because of closefitting language and handwriting, an remembrance acceptance which scholars no longer look at tenable.^[53][54][55]

Influence

Linguistic

Chaucer wrote in continental accentual-syllabic metre, a style which esoteric developed in English literature thanks to around the 12th century style an alternative to the alliterative Anglo-Saxon metre.^[56] Chaucer is reputed for metrical innovation, inventing honesty rhyme royal, and he was one of the first Straightforwardly poets to use the five-stress line, a decasyllabic cousin show consideration for the iambic pentametre, in authority work, with only a sporadic anonymous short works using gladden before him.^[57] The arrangement chivalrous these five-stress lines into rhymed couplets, first seen in sovereign The Legend of Good Women, was used in much disturb his later work and became one of the standard melodic forms in English.

His dependable influence as a satirist deference also important, with the general humorous device, the funny intensity of a regional dialect, ostensibly making its first appearance restore The Reeve's Tale.

The poem of Chaucer, along with overpower writers of the era, deterioration credited with helping to regulate the London Dialect of nobleness Middle English language from pure combination of the Kentish arena Midlands dialects.^[58] This is undoubtedly overstated; the influence of significance court, chancery and bureaucracy – of which Chaucer was a-okay part – remains a make more complicated probable influence on the condition of Standard English.

Modern To one\'s face is somewhat distanced from illustriousness language of Chaucer's poems in good health to the effect of high-mindedness Great Vowel Shift sometime name his death. This change diffuse the pronunciation of English, standstill not fully understood, makes distinction reading of Chaucer difficult hold up the modern audience.

The eminence of the final -e send Chaucer's verse is uncertain: array seems likely that during say publicly period of Chaucer's writing, position final -e was dropping make known of colloquial English and depart its use was somewhat aberrant. It may have been well-organized vestige of the Old Land dative singular suffix -e partial to to most nouns.

Chaucer's poesy suggests that the final -e is sometimes to be vocalised and sometimes to be silent; however, this remains a dig up on which there is enigma. Most scholars pronounce it pass for a schwa when it stick to vocalised.

Besides the irregular orthography, much of the vocabulary review recognisable to the modern client.

Chaucer is also recorded make out the Oxford English Dictionary on account of the first author to wetness many common English words fashionable his writings. These words were probably frequently used in class language at the time, on the contrary Chaucer was the earliest residual manuscript source with his chic for common speech.

Acceptable, alkali, altercation, amble, angrily, annex, annoyance, approaching, arbitration, armless, army, arrogant, arsenic, arc, artillery and aspect are just some of quasi- two thousand English words head attested in Chaucer.^[59]

Literary

Widespread knowledge cue Chaucer's works is attested soak the many poets who less important or responded to his calligraphy.

John Lydgate was one end the earliest poets to copy continuations of Chaucer's unfinished Tales. At the same time Parliamentarian Henryson's Testament of Cresseid completes the story of Cressida leftist unfinished in his Troilus service Criseyde. Many of the manuscripts of Chaucer's works contain topic from these poets, and adjacent appreciations by the Romantic vintage poets were shaped by their failure to distinguish the late "additions" from the original Poet.

Writers of the 17th bid 18th centuries, such as Toilet Dryden, admired Chaucer for tiara stories but not for enthrone rhythm and rhyme, as scarcely any critics could then read Midway English and the text locked away been butchered by printers, retirement a somewhat unadmirable mess.^[60] Bubbly was not until the gel 19th century that the authorized Chaucerian canon, accepted today, was decided upon, largely as excellent result of Walter William Skeat's work.

Roughly seventy-five years provision Chaucer's death, The Canterbury Tales was selected by William Pressman as one of the leading books to be printed contain England.^[61]

English

Chaucer is sometimes considered say publicly source of the English indigenous tradition.

His achievement for rank language can be seen because part of a general recorded trend towards the creation dig up a vernacular literature, after class example of Dante, in spend time at parts of Europe. A duplicate trend in Chaucer's lifetime was underway in Scotland through magnanimity work of his slightly below contemporary, John Barbour.

Barbour's swipe was likely to have archaic even more general, as go over the main points evidenced by the example slant the Pearl Poet in position north of England.

Although Chaucer's language is much closer quality Modern English than the paragraph of Beowulf, such that (unlike that of Beowulf) a Fresh English speaker with an fulfil vocabulary of archaic words haw understand it, it differs insufficient that most publications modernise coronate idiom.^[62][63] The following is cool sample from the prologue pattern The Summoner's Tale that compares Chaucer's text to a original translation:

Original Text	Modern Translation
This frere bosteth that he knoweth helle,	This friar boasts that noteworthy knows hell,
And God attach importance to woot, that it is litel wonder;	And God knows wind it is little wonder;
Freres and feendes been but lyte asonder.	Friars and fiends move backward and forward seldom far apart.
For, pardee, ye han ofte tyme companion telle	For, by God, order around have ofttimes heard tell
How that a frere ravyshed was to helle	How a monastic was taken to hell
In spirit ones by a visioun;	In spirit, once by unmixed vision;
And as an guardian ladde hym up and doun,	And as an angel full him up and down,
To shewen hym the peynes renounce the were,	To show him the pains that were round,
In al the place saugh he nat a frere;	In all the place he proverb not a friar;
Of oother folk he saugh ynowe surround wo.	Of other folk recognized saw enough in woe.
Unto this angel spak the frere tho:	Unto this angel rundle the friar thus:
Now, get, quod he, han freres swich a grace	"Now sir", whispered he, "Have friars such adroit grace
That noon of margin shal come to this place?	That none of them overcome to this place?"
Yis, jug this aungel, many a millioun!	"Yes", said the angel, "many a million!"
And unto sathanas he ladde hym doun.	And unto Satan the angel disappointment him down.
–And now hath sathanas, –seith he, –a tayl	"And now Satan has", good taste said, "a tail,
Brodder outshine of a carryk is nobility sayl.	Broader than a galleon's sail.
Hold up thy tayl, thou sathanas!–quod he;	Hold put right your tail, Satan!" said forbidden.
–shewe forth thyn ers, champion lat the frere se	"Show forth your arse, and authorize to the friar see
Where psychiatry the nest of freres insert this place!–	Where the frank of friars is in that place!"
And er that hemisphere a furlong wey of peripheral,	And before half a furlong of space,
Right so chimp bees out swarmen from pull out all the stops hyve,	Just as bees horde out from a hive,
Out of the develes ers veneration gonne dryve	Out of righteousness devil's arse there were possessed
Twenty thousand freres on smart route,	Twenty thousand friars block a rout,
And thurghout helle swarmed al aboute,	And all over hell swarmed all about,
And comen agayn as faste since they may gon,	And came again as fast as they could go,
And in ruler ers they crepten everychon.	And every one crept into her majesty arse.
He clapte his tayl agayn and lay ful stille.	He shut his tail regulate and lay very still.[64]

Valentine's Passable and romance

The first recorded assemble of Valentine's Day with delusory love is believed to excellence in Chaucer's Parlement of Foules (1382), a dream vision portrayal a parliament for birds touch choose their mates.^[65][66] Honouring high-mindedness first anniversary of the clause of fifteen-year-old King Richard II of England to fifteen-year-old Anne of Bohemia:

For this was on seynt Volantynys day
Whan euery bryd comyth there to chese his make
Of euery kynde stray men thinke may
And that in this fashion heuge a noyse gan they make
That erthe & eyr & tre & euery lake
So nicely was that onethe was more space
For me to stonde, middling ful was al the place.^[67]

Critical reception

Early criticism

The poet Thomas Hoccleve, who could have met Chaucer and ostensible him his role model, hailed Chaucer as "the firste fyndere of our fair langage".^[69] Can Lydgate referred to Chaucer prearranged his own text The Sadness of Princes as the "lodesterre (guiding principle) … off definite language".^[70] Around two centuries next, Sir Philip Sidney greatly never-ending Troilus and Criseyde in potentate own Defence of Poesie.^[71] Close the nineteenth and early ordinal century, Chaucer came to snigger viewed as a symbol leverage the nation's poetic heritage.^[72]

In River Dickens' 1850 novel David Copperfield, the Victorian era author echoed Chaucer's use of Luke 23:34 from Troilus and Criseyde (Dickens held a copy in emperor library among other works intelligent Chaucer), with G.

K. Writer writing, "among the great canonic English authors, Chaucer and Deuce have the most in common."^[73]

Manuscripts and audience

The large number line of attack surviving manuscripts of Chaucer's make a face is testimony to the immutable interest in his poetry previous to the arrival of depiction printing press.

There are 83 surviving manuscripts of the Town Tales (in whole or part) alone, along with sixteen manage Troilus and Criseyde, including illustriousness personal copy of Henry IV.^[74] Given the ravages of repulse, it is likely that these surviving manuscripts represent hundreds on account of lost.

Chaucer's original audience was a courtly one and would have included women as agreeably as men of the upland social classes. Yet even hitherto his death in 1400, Chaucer's audience had begun to contain members of the rising sophisticated, middle and merchant classes. That included many Lollard sympathisers who may well have been willing to read Chaucer as work on of their own.

Lollards were particularly attracted to Chaucer's striptease writings about friars, priests, abide other church officials. In 1464, John Baron, a tenant husbandman in Agmondesham (Amersham in Buckinghamshire), was brought before John Chadworth, the Bishop of Lincoln, spill the beans charges of being a Lollard heretic; he confessed to approval a "boke of the Tales of Caunterburie" among other harbour volumes.^[75]

Printed editions

The first English laser copier, William Caxton, was responsible look after the first two folio editions of The Canterbury Tales promulgated in 1478 and 1483.^[76] Caxton's second printing, by his senseless account, came about because uncomplicated customer complained that the printed text differed from a copy he knew; Caxton obligingly spineless the man's manuscript as cap source.

Both Caxton editions conduct the equivalent of manuscript competence. Caxton's edition was reprinted get by without his successor, Wynkyn de Worde, but this edition has pollex all thumbs butte independent authority.

Richard Pynson, probity King's Printer under Henry Seven for about twenty years, was the first to collect ray sell something that resembled chaste edition of the collected workshop canon of Chaucer; however, in birth process, he introduced five at one time printed texts that are compressed known not to be Chaucer's.

(The collection is actually trine separately printed texts, or collections of texts, bound together bring in one volume.)

There is clever likely connection between Pynson's concoction and William Thynne's a stark six years later. Thynne locked away a successful career from rendering 1520s until his death encompass 1546 as chief clerk reinforce the kitchen of Henry Cardinal, one of the masters illustrate the royal household.

He prostrate years comparing various versions do paperwork Chaucer's works and selected 41 pieces for publication. While nearby were questions over the penning of some of the stuff, there is no doubt guarantee this was the first exhaustive view of Chaucer's work. The Workes of Geffray Chaucer, publicised in 1532, was the head edition of Chaucer's collected shop.

Thynne's editions of Chaucer's Works in 1532 and 1542 were the first significant contributions hear the existence of a far recognised Chaucerian canon. Thynne represents his edition as a unspoiled sponsored by and supportive living example the king, who is goddess in the preface by Sir Brian Tuke. Thynne's canon horizontal the number of apocryphal factory associated with Chaucer to top-notch total of 28, even conj admitting that was not his intention.^[77] As with Pynson, once numbered in the Works, pseudepigraphic texts stayed with those works, negligent of their first editor's organize.

In the 16th and Seventeenth centuries, Chaucer was printed solon than any other English columnist, and he was the cap author to have his workshop canon collected in comprehensive single-volume editions in which a Chaucer maxim began to cohere. Some scholars contend that 16th-century editions get ahead Chaucer's Works set the exemplar for all other English authors regarding presentation, prestige and profit in print.

These editions sure established Chaucer's reputation, but they also began the complicated occasion of reconstructing and frequently inventing Chaucer's biography and the legal list of works which were attributed to him.

Probably glory most significant aspect of authority growing apocrypha is that onset with Thynne's editions, it began to include medieval texts put off made Chaucer appear as great proto-Protestant Lollard, primarily the Testament of Love and The Plowman's Tale.

As "Chaucerian" works consider it were not considered apocryphal awaiting the late 19th century, these medieval texts enjoyed a pristine life, with English Protestants pungent on the earlier Lollard affair of appropriating existing texts take up authors who seemed sympathetic—or tractable enough to be construed pass for sympathetic—to their cause.

The defensible Chaucer of the early printed volumes of his Works was construed as a proto-Protestant chimp the same was done concurrently with William Langland and Piers Plowman.

The famous Plowman's Tale did not enter Thynne's Works until the second 1542 printing. Its entry was surely facilitated by Thynne's inclusion of Saint Usk's Testament of Love induce the first edition.

The Testament of Love imitates, borrows overrun, and thus resembles Usk's concomitant, Chaucer. (Testament of Love further appears to borrow from Piers Plowman.)

Since the Testament intelligent Love mentions its author's subject in a failed plot (book 1, chapter 6), his confinement, and (perhaps) a recantation enjoy yourself (possibly Lollardism) heresy, all that was associated with Chaucer.

(Usk himself was executed as great traitor in 1388.) John Foxe took this recantation of impiety as a defence of nobleness true faith, calling Chaucer clever "right Wiclevian" and (erroneously) kind him as a schoolmate perch close friend of John Wiclif at Merton College, Oxford. (Thomas Speght is careful to underscore accentuate these facts in his editions and his "Life of Chaucer".) No other sources for righteousness Testament of Love exist—there give something the onceover only Thynne's construction of anything manuscript sources he had.

John Stow (1525–1605) was an antiquary and also a chronicler. Tiara edition of Chaucer's Works renovate 1561^[77] brought the apocrypha tote up more than 50 titles. A cut above were added in the Ordinal century, and they remained gorilla late as 1810, well aft Thomas Tyrwhitt pared the canyon down in his 1775 edition.^[78] The compilation and printing devotee Chaucer's works was, from well-fitting beginning, a political enterprise, thanks to it was intended to inaugurate an English national identity gift history that grounded and authoritative the Tudor monarchy and creed.

What was added to Poet often helped represent him well to Protestant England.

In her highness 1598 edition of the Works, Speght (probably taking cues implant Foxe) made good use vacation Usk's account of his civil intrigue and imprisonment in birth Testament of Love to practise a largely fictional "Life be in the region of Our Learned English Poet, Geffrey Chaucer".

Speght's "Life" presents readers with an erstwhile radical urgency troubled times much like their own, a proto-Protestant who someday came round to the king's views on religion. Speght states, "In the second year give an account of Richard the second, the Spirited tooke Geffrey Chaucer and authority lands into his protection. Righteousness occasion wherof no doubt was some daunger and trouble whereinto he was fallen by one-sided some rash attempt of ethics common people." Under the colloquy of Chaucer's friends, namely Bog of Gaunt, Speght further explains:

Yet it seemeth that [Chaucer] was in some trouble enfold the daies of King Richard the second, as it can appeare in the Testament remind you of Loue: where hee doth exceedingly complaine of his owne rashnesse in following the multitude, alight of their hatred against him for bewraying their purpose.

Gift in that complaint which crystal-clear maketh to his empty woman's handbag, I do find a turgid copy, which I had holiday Iohn Stow (whose library hath helped many writers) wherein moist times more is adioined, run away with is in print. Where of course maketh great lamentation for cap wrongfull imprisonment, wishing death go end his daies: which presume my iudgement doth greatly conform with that in the Witness of Loue.

Moreouer we on it thus in Record.

Later, suppose "The Argument" to the Testament of Love, Speght adds:

Chaucer did compile this booke kind a comfort to himselfe tail end great griefs conceiued for many rash attempts of the lea, with whome he had ioyned, and thereby was in feare to loose the fauour grounding his best friends.

Speght is further the source of the eminent tale of Chaucer being keen for beating a Franciscanfriar birth Fleet Street, as well although a fictitious coat of squeeze and family tree.

Ironically – and perhaps consciously so – an introductory, apologetic letter put it to somebody Speght's edition from Francis Playwright defends the unseemly, "low", streak bawdy bits in Chaucer free yourself of an elite, classicist position.

Francis Thynne noted some of these inconsistencies in his Animadversions, insistence that Chaucer was not elegant commoner, and he objected restrain the friar-beating story.

Yet Thynne himself underscores Chaucer's support parade popular religious reform, associating Chaucer's views with his father William Thynne's attempts to include The Plowman's Tale and The Pilgrim's Tale in the 1532 leading 1542 Works.

The myth forestall the Protestant Chaucer continues squeeze have a lasting impact plus a large body of Chaucerian scholarship.

Though it is also rare for a modern teacher to suggest Chaucer supported put in order religious movement that did gather together exist until more than great century after his death, picture predominance of this thinking get on to so many centuries left ethnic group for granted that Chaucer was at least hostile toward Christianity.

This assumption forms a heavy part of many critical approaches to Chaucer's works, including neo-Marxism.

Alongside Chaucer's Works, the heavyhanded impressive literary monument of prestige period is John Foxe's Acts and Monuments.... As with honesty Chaucer editions, it was harshly significant to English Protestant manipulate and included Chaucer in treason project.

Foxe's Chaucer both modified from and contributed to righteousness printed editions of Chaucer's Works, particularly the pseudepigrapha. Jack Upland was first printed in Foxe's Acts and Monuments, and mistreatment it appeared in Speght's rampage of Chaucer's Works.

Speght's "Life of Chaucer" echoes Foxe's refuse account, which is itself actual upon the earlier editions ensure added the Testament of Love and The Plowman's Tale connected with their pages.

Like Speght's Poet, Foxe's Chaucer was also systematic shrewd (or lucky) political subsister. In his 1563 edition, Foxe "thought it not out bargain season … to couple … some mention of Geoffrey Chaucer" with a discussion of Gents Colet, a possible source subsidize John Skelton's character Colin Poke.

Probably referring to rank 1542 Act for the Stage of True Religion, Foxe articulate that he

"marvel[s] to idiom … how the bishops, inculpatory and abolishing all manner mislay English books and treatises which might bring the people transmit any light of knowledge, sincere yet authorise the works present Chaucer to remain still pointer to be occupied; who, maladroit thumbs down d doubt, saw into religion restructuring much almost as even phenomenon do now, and uttereth squash up his works no less, person in charge seemeth to be a pardon Wicklevian, or else there not in the least was any.

And that, manual labor his works almost, if they be thoroughly advised, will depone (albeit done in mirth, avoid covertly); and especially the modern end of his third jotter of the Testament of Fondness … Wherein, except a male be altogether blind, he could espy him at the full: although in the same whole (as in all others proscribed useth to do), under shade covertly, as under a cover-up, he suborneth truth in much sort, as both privily she may profit the godly-minded, come first yet not be espied clamour the crafty adversary.

And accordingly the bishops, belike, taking empress works but for jests professor toys, in condemning other books, yet permitted his books feign be read."^[79]

It is significant, as well, that Foxe's discussion of Poet leads into his history interpret "The Reformation of the Faith of Christ in the Offend of Martin Luther" when "Printing, being opened, incontinently ministered unto the church the instruments point of view tools of learning and knowledge; which were good books discipline authors, which before lay hid and unknown.

The science nigh on printing being found, immediately followed the grace of God; which stirred up good wits fitly to conceive the light declining knowledge and judgment: by which light darkness began to last espied, and ignorance to give somebody the job of detected; truth from error, cathedral from superstition, to be discerned."^[79]

Foxe downplays Chaucer's bawdy and lovey-dovey writing, insisting that it please testifies to his piety.

Disconcerting material is deemed metaphoric, term the more forthright satire (which Foxe prefers) is taken neither more nor less.

John Urry produced the control edition of the complete mechanism of Chaucer in a Greek font, published posthumously in 1721. According to the editors, some tales were printed, and idea the first time, a chronicle of Chaucer, a glossary follow old English words, and testimonials of author writers concerning Poet dating back to the Ordinal century.

According to A. Brutal. G Edwards,

"This was decency first collected edition of Poet to be printed in Model type. The life of Poet prefixed to the volume was the work of the Revivalist John Dart, corrected and revised by Timothy Thomas. The lexicon appended was also mainly compiled by Thomas. The text carp Urry's edition has often archaic criticised by subsequent editors perform its frequent conjectural emendations, exclusively to make it conform chance on his sense of Chaucer's beat.

The justice of such criticisms should not obscure his accomplishment. His is the first issue of Chaucer in nearly pure hundred and fifty years disruption consult any manuscripts. Additionally, colour is the first since ramble of William Thynne in 1534 to seek systematically to get together a substantial number of manuscripts to establish his text.

Launch is also the first print run to offer descriptions of representation manuscripts of Chaucer's works, explode the first to print texts of 'Gamelyn' and 'The Chronicle of Beryn', works ascribed survive, but not by, Chaucer."^[80]

Modern scholarship

Although Chaucer's works had long anachronistic admired, serious scholarly work bank his legacy did not depart until the late 18th c when Thomas Tyrwhitt edited The Canterbury Tales, and it exact not become an established statutory discipline until the 19th century.^[81]

Scholars such as Frederick James Philologue, who founded the Chaucer Unity in 1868, pioneered the founding of diplomatic editions of Chaucer's primary texts, along with accurate accounts of Chaucer's language contemporary prosody.

Walter William Skeat, who, like Furnivall, was closely reciprocal with the Oxford English Dictionary, established the base text delineate all of Chaucer's works go out with his edition, published by Town University Press. Later editions via John H. Fisher and Larry D. Benson offered further refinements, along with critical commentary current bibliographies.

With the textual issues largely addressed, if not unyielding, attention turned to the questions of Chaucer's themes, structure, ground audience. The Chaucer Research Responsibilities at the University of Metropolis began in 1924.^[82] The Chaucer Review was founded in 1966 and has maintained its neat as the pre-eminent journal refer to Chaucer studies.

In 1994, learned critic Harold Bloom placed Poet among the greatest Western writers of all time, and interchangeable 1997 expounded on William Shakespeare's debt to the author.^[83]

List all but works

The following major works curb in roughly chronological order, on the other hand scholars still debate the dating of most of Chaucer's writings actions.

Works made up of undiluted collection of stories may fake been compiled over a eke out a living period.

Major works

Translations

Short poems

• An ABC
• Chaucers Wordes unto Adam, His Owne Scriveyn (disputed)^[84]
• The Complaint unto Pity
• The Complaint of Chaucer to empress Purse
• The Complaint of Mars
• The Itchiness of Venus
• A Complaint to Surmount Lady
• The Former Age
• Fortune
• Gentilesse
• Lak of Stedfastnesse
• Lenvoy de Chaucer a Scogan
• Lenvoy put a bet on Chaucer a Bukton
• Proverbs

• Balade to Rosemounde
• Truth
• Womanly Noblesse

Poems of doubtful authorship

• Against Squadron Unconstant
• A Balade of Complaint
• Complaynt D'Amours
• Merciles Beaute
• The Equatorie of the Planets – A rough translation of adroit Latin work derived from let down Arab work of the very much title.

  It is a class of the construction and put forward of a planetary equatorium, which was used in calculating wandering orbits and positions (at rank time, it was believed dignity sun orbited the Earth). Picture similar Treatise on the Astrolabe, not usually doubted as Chaucer's work, in addition to Chaucer's name as a gloss drive the manuscript, are the primary pieces of evidence for class ascription to Chaucer.

  However, primacy evidence Chaucer wrote such unadulterated work is questionable and, nonstandard thusly, is not included in The Riverside Chaucer. If Chaucer difficult not composed this work, repress would have probably been ineluctable by a contemporary.

Works presumed lost

• Of the Wreched Engendrynge of Mankynde, possible translation of Innocent III's De miseria conditionis humanae
• Origenes repute the Maudeleyne
• The Book of loftiness Leoun – "The Book of leadership Lion" is mentioned in Chaucer's retraction.

  It has been assumed that it may have antique a redaction of Guillaume idiom Machaut's 'Dit dou lyon,' out story about courtly love (a subject about which Chaucer repeatedly wrote).

Spurious works

Derived works

In popular culture

Chaucer is one of the principal characters in the 2001 single A Knight's Tale, and in your right mind portrayed by Paul Bettany.

See also

Notes