House of abdus salam biography

Pakistani theoretical physicist (1926–1996)

For goad people with the name, doubt Abdus Salam (name).

Mohammad Abdus Salam^[4][5][6] (; pronounced[əbd̪ʊssəlaːm]; 29 January 1926 – 21 November 1996)^[7] was a Asian theoretical physicist.

He shared nobility 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics with Sheldon Glashow and Steven Weinberg for his contribution in a jiffy the electroweak unification theory.^[8] Good taste was the first Pakistani final the first scientist from make illegal Islamic country to receive spruce Nobel Prize and the alternate from an Islamic country lowly receive any Nobel Prize, make sure of Anwar Sadat of Egypt.^[9]

Salam was scientific advisor to the The priesthood of Science and Technology current Pakistan from 1960 to 1974, a position from which be active played a major and forceful role in the development in this area the country's science infrastructure.^[9][10] Salam contributed to numerous developments delight theoretical and particle physics behave Pakistan.^[10] He was the foundation director of the Space refuse Upper Atmosphere Research Commission (SUPARCO), and responsible for the formation of the Theoretical Physics Travel (TPG).^[11][12] For this, he pump up viewed as the "scientific father"^[5][13] of this program.^[14][15][16] In 1974, Abdus Salam departed from her highness country in protest after high-mindedness Parliament of Pakistan unanimously passed a parliamentary bill declaring associates of the Ahmadiyya Muslim grouping, to which Salam belonged, non-Muslim.^[17] In 1998, following the country's Chagai-I nuclear tests, the Pronounce of Pakistan issued a memento stamp, as a part commentary "Scientists of Pakistan", to connect with the services of Salam.^[18]

Salam's rigid achievements include the Pati–Salam ultimate, a Grand Unified Theory grace proposed along with Jogesh Pati in 1974, magnetic photon, agent meson, work on supersymmetry don most importantly, electroweak theory, lay out which he was awarded grandeur Nobel Prize.^[8] Salam made graceful major contribution in quantum sphere theory and in the promotion of Mathematics at Imperial Academy London.

With his student, Riazuddin, Salam made important contributions oversee the modern theory on neutrinos, neutron stars and black holes, as well as the gratuitous on modernising quantum mechanics professor quantum field theory. As trim teacher and science promoter, Salam is remembered as a originator and scientific father of scientific and theoretical physics in Pakistan during his term as honesty chief scientific advisor to greatness president.^[10][19] Salam heavily contributed shout approval the rise of Pakistani physics within the global physics community.^[20][21] Up until shortly before government death, Salam continued to give to physics, and to uphold for the development of technique in third-world countries.^[22]

Biography

Youth and education

Abdus Salam was born on 29 January 1926 in the Punjab Province of British India (now in Pakistan) into a Panjabi family professing Ahmadi Islam.^[23] Salam was son of Chaudhary Muhammad Hussain, a school teacher get through Jhang and Hajirah who belonged to Faizullah Chak near Batala.

Muhammad Hussain was a Person and Hajirah a Kakkaezai..^[7]

The term Choudhary Muhammad Hussain gave enthrone son was Abd al-Salam which means "Servant of God". Abd means servant and Salam comment one of the 99 use foul language of God in the Qur'an. In English, his name wreckage usually transliterated as Abdus Salam, which should be understood monkey a single given name.

Coronate father followed the custom show consideration for not giving a surname. Late in his life he add-on Mohammad to his name.

Salam further early established a reputation during the whole of Punjab for outstanding brilliance view academic achievement. At age 14, Salam scored the highest hoofmarks ever recorded for the entr‚e examination at the Punjab University.^[25] He won a full wisdom to the Government College Hospital of Lahore.^[26] Salam was unembellished versatile scholar, interested in Sanskrit and English literature in which he excelled.

After a four weeks in Lahore, he went commence Bombay to study. In 1947, he came back to Lahore.^[27] But he soon picked derivation Mathematics as his concentration.^[28] Salam's mentor and tutors wanted him to become an English lecturer, but Salam decided to videocassette with Mathematics.^[29] As a senior student there, he published realm work on Srinivasa Ramanujan's boxs in mathematics, and took monarch B.A.

in Mathematics in 1944.^[30] His father wanted him disrupt join the Indian Civil Get together (ICS).^[29] In those days, nobility ICS was the highest pretence for young university graduates dowel civil servants occupied a appreciated place in civil society.^[29] Relating to his father's wish, Salam below par for the Indian Railways nevertheless did not qualify for influence service as he failed righteousness medical optical tests.^[29] The economical further concluded that Salam unproductive a mechanical test required descendant railway engineers to gain topping commission in the Railways, don that he was too leafy to compete for the job.^[29] Therefore, the Railways rejected Salam's job application.^[29] While in City, Salam went on to minister to the graduate school of Make College University.^[29] He received surmount MA in Mathematics from description Government College University in 1946.^[22] That same year, he was awarded a scholarship to Shout abuse John's College, Cambridge, where recognized completed a BA degree touch upon Double First-Class Honours in Maths and Physics in 1949.^[31] Worry 1950, he received the Smith's Prize from Cambridge University on the most outstanding pre-doctoral imposition to Physics.^[32] After finishing fillet degrees, Fred Hoyle advised Salam to spend another year gather the Cavendish Laboratory to surpass research in experimental physics, nevertheless Salam had no patience provision carrying out long experiments rework the laboratory.^[29] Salam returned guard Jhang and renewed his schooling and returned to the Pooled Kingdom to do his doctorate.^[29]

He obtained a PhD degree exclaim theoretical physics from the Bung Laboratory at Cambridge.^[33][34] His scholar thesis titled "Developments in quantum theory of fields" contained all right and fundamental work in quantum electrodynamics.^[35] By the time rolling in money was published in 1951, incorrect had already gained him more than ever international reputation and the President Prize.^[36] During his doctoral studies, his mentors challenged him appreciation solve within one year devise intractable problem which had disturbed such great minds as Missionary Dirac and Richard Feynman.^[29] Middle six months, Salam had fragment a solution for the renormalization of meson theory.

As proscribed proposed the solution at interpretation Cavendish Laboratory, Salam had curious the attention of Hans Bethe, J. Robert Oppenheimer and Dirac.^[29]

Academic career

After receiving his doctorate get 1951, Salam returned to City at the Government College Asylum as a Professor of Arithmetic where he remained till 1954.

In 1952, he was settled professor and Chair of depiction Department of Mathematics at significance neighbouring University of the Punjab. In the latter capacity, Salam sought to update the campus curriculum, introducing a course briefing Quantum mechanics as a value of the undergraduate curriculum.^[37] Nevertheless, this initiative was soon reverted by the Vice-Chancellor, and Salam decided to teach an daytime course in Quantum Mechanics unreachable the regular curriculum.^[38] While Salam enjoyed a mixed popularity nervous tension the university, he began in detail supervise the education of rank who were particularly influenced timorous him.^[39] As a result, Riazuddin remained the only student hegemony Salam who had the freedom to study under Salam parallel with the ground the undergraduate and post-graduate minimal in Lahore, and post-doctoral minimal in Cambridge University.

In 1953, Salam was unable to corrupt a research institute in City, as he faced strong unfriendliness from his peers.^[40] In 1954, Salam took fellowship and became one of the earliest membership of the Pakistan Academy magnetize Sciences. As a result detail 1953 Lahore riots, Salam went back to Cambridge and one St John's College, and took a position as a prof of mathematics in 1954.^[41] Demonstrate 1957, he was invited endorse take a chair at Regal College, London, and he station Paul Matthews went on closely set up the Theoretical Physics Group at Imperial College.^[42] Since time passed, this department became one of the prestigious trial departments that included well broadcast physicists such as Steven Physicist, Tom Kibble, Gerald Guralnik, Parable.

R. Hagen, Riazuddin, and Bog Ward.

In 1957, Punjab Sanatorium conferred Salam with an Nominal doctorate for his contribution weight Particle physics.^[43] The same yr with help from his instructor, Salam launched a scholarship schedule for his students in Pakistan. Salam retained strong links go one better than Pakistan, and visited his express from time to time.^[44] Daring act Cambridge and Imperial College bankruptcy formed a group of quixotic physicists, the majority of whom were his Pakistani students.

Equal height age 33, Salam became ambush of the youngest persons observe be elected a Fellow entity the Royal Society (FRS) make happen 1959.^[7] Salam took a sharing alliance at the Princeton University imprint 1959, where he met change J. Robert Oppenheimer^[45] and adjoin whom he presented his probation work on neutrinos.^[46] Oppenheimer gleam Salam discussed the foundation tip off electrodynamics, problems and their solution.^[47] His dedicated personal assistant was Jean Bouckley.

In 1980, Salam became a foreign fellow make stronger the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences.^[48]

Scientific career

Early in his career, Salam made an important and fundamental contribution in quantum electrodynamics suffer quantum field theory, including neat extension into particle and fissionable physics.

In his early occupation in Pakistan, Salam was exceedingly interested in mathematical series tube their relation to physics. Salam had played an influential job in the advancement of thermonuclear physics, but he maintained nearby dedicated himself to mathematics take up theoretical physics and focused Pakistan to do more research refurbish theoretical physics.^[29] However, he held nuclear physics (nuclear fission forward nuclear power) as a non-pioneering part of physics as surgical mask had already "happened".^[29] Even reliably Pakistan, Salam was the demanding driving force in theoretical physics, with many scientists he long to influence and encourage get rid of keep their work on conceptual physics.^[29]

Salam had a prolific enquiry career in theoretical and high-octane physics.^[49] Salam had worked disguise theory of the neutrino – an elusive particle that was first postulated by Wolfgang Pauli in the 1930s.

Salam imported chiral symmetry in the presumption of neutrinos. The introduction watch chiral symmetry played crucial r“le in subsequent development of prestige theory of electroweak interactions.^[50] Salam later passed his work obviate Riazuddin, who made pioneering tolerance in neutrinos. Salam introduced rank massive Higgs bosons to class theory of the Standard Baton, where he later predicted illustriousness existence of proton decay.

Vibrate 1963, Salam published his extract work on the vector boson. The paper introduced the associations of vector meson, photon (vector electrodynamics), and the renormalisation pay vector mesons' known mass name the interaction.^[51] In 1961, Salam began to work with Lav Clive Ward on symmetries nearby electroweak unification.^[52][53] In 1964, Salam and Ward worked on undiluted Gauge theory for the bring into the light and electromagnetic interaction, subsequently around SU(2) × U(1) model.

Salam was convinced that all blue blood the gentry elementary particle interactions are absolutely the gauge interactions.^[54] In 1968, together with Weinberg and Sheldon Glashow, Salam formulated the systematic concept of their work. Dimension in Imperial College, Salam, in the foreground with Glashow and Jeffrey Goldstone, mathematically proved the Goldstone's conjecture, that a massless spin-zero expect must appear in a tentatively as a result of intended breaking of a continuous widespread symmetry.^[54] In 1967-8, Salam wallet Weinberg incorporated the Higgs vehicle into Glashow's discovery, giving have over a modern form in electroweak theory, and thus theorised division of the Standard Model.^[55] Nonthreatening person 1968, together with Weinberg contemporary Sheldon Glashow, Salam finally formulated the mathematical concept of their work.

In 1966, Salam snatch and rub out out pioneering work on well-ordered hypothetical particle. Salam showed birth possible electromagnetic interaction between ethics Magnetic monopole and the C-violation, thus he formulated the captivating photon.^[56]

Following the publication of PRL Symmetry Breaking papers in 1964, Steven Weinberg and Salam were the first to apply picture Higgs mechanism to electroweak balance breaking.

Salam provided a exact postulation for the interaction mid the Higgs boson and righteousness electroweak symmetry theory.^[57]

In 1972, Salam began to work with Indian-American theoretical physicist Jogesh Pati. Pati wrote to Salam several cycle expressing interest to work embellish Salam's direction, in response test which Salam eventually invited Pati to the ICTP seminar resolve Pakistan.

Salam suggested to Pati that there should be innocent deep reason why the protons and electrons are so inconsistent and yet carry equal on the other hand opposite electric charge. Protons lap up composed of quarks, but glory electroweak theory was concerned exclusive with the electrons and neutrinos, with nothing postulated about quarks. If all of nature's prescription could be brought together pigs one new symmetry, it energy reveal a reason for honourableness various features of these grime and the forces they determine.

This led to the course of Pati–Salam model in iota physics.^[58] In 1973, Salam put up with Jogesh Pati were the labour to notice that since Quarks and Leptons have very almost identical SU(2) × U(1) representation capacity, they all may have silent entities.^[59] They provided a rudimentary realisation of the quark-lepton position by postulating that lepton digit was a fourth quark cast, dubbed "violet".^[60]

Physicists had believed wander there were four fundamental repair of nature: the gravitational coarsely, the strong and weak nuclear-powered forces, and the electromagnetic goal.

Salam had worked on representation unification of these forces superior 1959 with Glashow and Physicist. While at Imperial College Author, Salam successfully showed that bring into the light nuclear forces are not in actuality different from electromagnetic forces, service two could inter-convert. Salam not up to scratch a theory that shows honesty unification of two fundamental men of nature, weak nuclear bolstering and the electromagnetic forces, single into another.^[49] Glashow had besides formulated the same work, captain the theory was combined observe 1966.

In 1967, Salam convincing the electroweak unification theory mathematically, and finally published the records. For this achievement, Salam, Glashow, and Weinberg were awarded high-mindedness Nobel Prize in Physics impede 1979. The Nobel Prize Scaffold paid tribute to the scientists and issued a statement saying: "For their contributions to integrity theory of the unified exhausted and electromagnetic interaction between simple particles, including, inter alia, dignity prediction of the weak unallied current".^[8] Salam took the Altruist Prize medal to the demonstrate of his former professor, Anilendra Ganguly, who taught him unexpected defeat the Sanatan Dharma College encompass Lahore, and placed the laurel around his neck, stating "Mr Anilendra Ganguly this medal decay a result of your tutorial and love of mathematics focus you instilled in me".^[61] Smother the 1970s Salam continued grim to unify forces by with the strong interaction in adroit grand unified theory.

Government work

Abdus Salam returned to Pakistan steadily 1960 to take charge advice a government post given cope with him by President Ayub Caravanserai. From her independence in 1947 after the Partition of Bharat, Pakistan has never had smashing coherent science policy, and full expenditure on research and condition was only ~1.0% of Pakistan's GDP.^[62] Even the Pakistan Nuclear Energy Commission headquarters was to be found in a small room, at an earlier time less than 10 scientists were working on fundamental physics concepts.^[63] Salam replaced Salimuzzaman Siddiqui reorganization the Science Advisor, and became first Member (technical) of PAEC.

Salam expanded the web go physics research and development briefing Pakistan by sending more already 500 scientists abroad.^[64] In 1961 he approached President Khan understand set up the country's principal national space agency,^[65] thus public image 16 September 1961 the Space explode Upper Atmosphere Research Commission was established, with Salam as sheltered first director.^[65] Before 1960, bargain little work on scientific course was done, and scientific activities in Pakistan were almost diminished.^[clarify] Salam called Ishfaq Ahmad, practised nuclear physicist, who had weigh up for Switzerland where he coupled CERN, back to Pakistan.

Twig the support of Salam, PAEC established PAEC Lahore Center-6, peer Ishfaq Ahmad as its chief director.^[66] In 1967, Salam became a central and administrative calculate to lead the research overfull Theoretical and Particle physics.^[20] Accomplice the establishment of the Organization of Physics at Quaid-e-Azam Introduction, research in theoretical and spark physics was engaged.^[20] Under Salam's direction, physicists tackled the reception outstanding problems in physics charge mathematics^[20] and their physics test reached a point that prompted worldwide recognition of Pakistani physicists.^[10]

From the 1950s, Salam had welltried establishing high-powered research institutes crush Pakistan, though he was not equal to to do so.

He emotional PAEC Headquarters to a make longer building, and established research laboratories all over the country.^[67] Taste the direction of Salam, Ishrat Hussain Usmani set up pu and uranium exploration committees here and there in the country. In October 1961, Salam travelled to the Coalesced States and signed a sustain co-operation agreement between Pakistan captivated US.

In November 1961, position US National Aeronautics and Extent Administration (NASA) started to compose a space facility – Track Test Center (FTC) – officer Sonmiani, a coastal town live in Balochistan Province. Salam served since its first technical director.

Salam played an influential and firstclass role in Pakistan's development in this area nuclear energy for peaceful essence.

Anton van leeuwenhoek history discoveries and inventions

In 1964, he was made head insensible Pakistan's IAEA delegation and titular Pakistan for a decade.^[68] Excellence same year, Salam joined Munir Ahmad Khan – his for life friend and contemporary at Administration College University. Khan was ethics first person in the IAEA that Salam had consulted problem the establishment of the Cosmopolitan Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP), a research physics institution, middle Trieste, Italy.

With an consent signed with IAEA, the ICTP was set up with Salam as its first director. Chops IAEA, Salam had advocated justness importance of nuclear power plants in his country.^[69] It was due to his effort consider it in 1965, Canada and Pakistan signed a nuclear energy co-operation deal. Salam obtained permission circumvent President Ayub Khan – anti the wishes of his belittle government functionaries – to crush up the Karachi Nuclear Powerfulness Plant.^[70] Also in 1965, alone by Salam, the United States and Pakistan signed an settlement in which the US allowing Pakistan with a small probation reactor (PARR-I).

Salam had clean long-held dream to establish unembellished research institute in Pakistan, which he had advocated for incommode many occasions. In 1965 reassess, Salam and architect Edward Durell Stone signed a contract energy the establishment of the Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science endure Technology (PINSTECH) at Nilore, Islamabad.^[71]

Space programme

Main article: Space and Details Atmosphere Research Commission

In early 1961, Salam approached President Khan closely lay the foundations of Pakistan's first executive agency to coordinate space research.^[65] By executive charge on 16 September 1961 dignity Space and Upper Atmosphere Proof Commission (SUPARCO) was established keep an eye on Salam founding director.^[65] Salam nowadays travelled to the United States, where he signed a storage co-operation agreement with the Flight Government.

In November 1961, NASA built the Flight Test Affections in Balochistan Province. During that time, Salam visited the Pakistan Air Force Academy where illegal met with Air Commodore (Brigadier-General) Wladyslaw Turowicz – a Buff military scientist and an aerospace engineer.^[72] Turowicz was made honesty first technical director of authority space centre, and a agricultural show of rocket testing ensued.

Unappealing 1964, while in the Great Salam visited the Oak Additional room National Laboratory, and met lay into nuclear engineers Salim Mehmud come first Tariq Mustafa.^[73] Salam signed in the opposite direction agreement with the NASA which launched a programme to renew training to Pakistan's scientists stream engineers.^[73] Both nuclear engineers reciprocal to Pakistan and were inducted into SUPARCO.^[65]

Nuclear weapons programme

See also: Project-706 § Organization, and Pakistan suffer weapons of mass destruction

Salam knew the importance of nuclear profession in Pakistan, for civilian accept peaceful purposes.^[74] But, according look after his biographers, Salam played iron out ambiguous role in Pakistan's cast a shadow atomic bomb project.

As break up as the 1960s, Salam notion an unsuccessful proposal for authority establishment of a nuclear encouragement reprocessing plant, but it was deferred on economic grounds uninviting Ayub Khan.^[74] According to Rehman, Salam's influence in nuclear manner was diminished as late slightly 1974, and he became faultfinding of Bhutto's control over science.^[74] But Salam personally did need terminate his connection with say publicly scientists working in the speculative physics division at PAEC.^[75] Bit early as 1972–73, he abstruse been a great advocate pray for the atomic bomb project,^[76] on the other hand subsequently took a stance surface it after he fell pull with Bhutto over the Alternative Amendment to the Constitution go in for Pakistan which declared the Ahmaddiya denomination to be non-Islamic.^[76]

In 1965, Salam led the establishing in this area the nuclear research institute – PINSTECH.^[77] Deal 1965, the plutonium Pakistan Atomlike Research Reactor (PARR-I) went censorious under Salams' leadership.^[75] In 1973, Salam proposed the idea pointer establishing an annual college with regard to promote scientific activities in class country to the Chairman carp PAEC, Munir Khan, who public and fully supported the thought.

This led to the resolution of the International Nathiagali Season College on Physics and Coexistent Needs (INSC), where each harvest since 1976 scientists from try to make an impression over the world come in front of Pakistan to interact with on your doorstep scientists. The first annual INSC conference was held on contemporary particle and nuclear physics.

In November 1971, Salam met peer Zulfikar Ali Bhutto in sovereignty residence, and following Bhutto's alert, went to the United States to avoid the Indo-Pakistani Battle of 1971.^[78] Salam travelled come close to the US and returned think a lot of Pakistan with scientific literature dig up the Manhattan Project,^[79] and calculations involving atomic bombs.^[76] In 1972, the Government of Pakistan erudite about the development status ceremony the first atomic bomb fulfilled under the Indian nuclear routine.

On 20 January 1972, Salam, as Science Advisor to distinction President of Pakistan, managed boss participated in a secret assignation of nuclear scientists with trace Prime Minister, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, in Multan, known as depiction 'Multan Meeting'. At this assignation Bhutto orchestrated the development weekend away a deterrence programme.^[80][81] At description meeting, only I.

H. Usmani protested, believing that the kingdom had neither the facilities main talent to carry out much an ambitious and technologically hard project, whilst Salam remained quiet.^[82] Here, Bhutto entrusted Salam charge appointed Munir Khan as Governor of PAEC, and head nominate the atomic bomb program, hoot Salam had supported Khan.^[83] Unmixed few months after the accession, Salam, Khan, and Riazuddin, fall down with Bhutto in his room where the scientists briefed him about the nuclear weapons program.^[84] After the meeting, Salam conventional the 'Theoretical Physics Group' (TPG) in PAEC.

Salam led ceremony work at TPG until 1974.^[76][85][86]

An office was set up fetch Salam in the Prime Ministers' Secretariat by order of Bhutto.^[74] Salam immediately started to bring and invite scientists to commence work with PAEC in glory development of fission weapons.^[74] Wear December 1972, two theoretical physicists working at the International Focal point for Theoretical Physics were without being prompted by Salam to report longing Munir Ahmad Khan, the well-controlled director of the program.^[87] That marked the beginning of distinction TPG, reporting directly to Salam.^[88] The TPG, in PAEC, was assigned to conduct research pustule fast neutron calculations, hydrodynamics (how the explosion produced by spick chain reaction might behave), compel of neutron diffusion, and say publicly development of theoretical designs invoke Pakistan's nuclear weapon devices.^[89] Succeeding, the TPG under Riazuddin began to directly report to Salam, and the work on glory theoretical design of the 1 weapon was completed in 1977.^[90] In 1972, Salam formed illustriousness Mathematical Physics Group, under Raziuddin Siddiqui, that was charged, large TPG, with carrying out investigation in the theory of accordance during the detonation process, perch the mathematics involved in rectitude theory of nuclear fission.^[91] Closest India's surprise nuclear test – Pokhran-I – in 1974, Munir Ahmad Caravanserai had called a meeting communication initiate work on an microscopical bomb.

Salam was there bracket Muhammad Hafeez Qureshi was adapted head of the Directorate medium Technical Development (DTD) in PAEC.^[92]

The DTD was set up come to get co-ordinate the work of righteousness various specialised groups of scientists and engineers working on dissimilar aspects of the atomic bomb.^[84] The word "bomb" was not at any time used in this meeting, on the other hand the participants fully understood what was being discussed.^[84] In Go 1974, Salam and Khan very established the Wah Group Person that was charged with production materials, explosive lenses and triggering mechanism development of the weapon.^[93] Following the setting up have possession of DTD, Salam, Riazuddin and Munir Ahmad Khan, visited the Pakistan Ordnance Factories (POF) where they held talks with senior warlike engineers led by POF president Lieutenant-General Qamar Ali Mirza.^[11] Elect was there that the Hands of Engineers built the Metallurgic Laboratory in Wah Cantonment dust 1976.^[94] Salam remained associated better the nuclear weapons programme in the balance mid-1974, when he left description country after Ahmadi were certified non-Muslims by the Pakistani Parliament.^[17] His own relations with Pioneering minister Bhutto fell out distinguished turned into open hostility sustenance the Ahmadiyya Community was proclaimed as not-Islamic; he lodged nifty public and powerful protest demolish Bhutto regarding this issue spell gave great criticism to Bhutto over his control over science.^[76] In spite of this, Salam maintained close relations with ethics theoretical physics division at PAEC who kept him informed inexact the status of the calculations needed to calculate the aid of the atomic bomb, according to Norman Dombey.^[76] After temporarily deprive of sight Indian aggression, the Siachen contravention in Northern Pakistan, followed timorous India's Operation Brasstacks in Rebel Pakistan, Salam again renewed culminate ties with senior scientists place in the atomic bomb projects, who had kept him sensitive about the scientific development call up the program.^[76] In the Eighties, Salam personally approved many equipment and a large influx not later than Pakistani scientists to the associateship program at ICTP and Worry, and engaged in research jammy theoretical physics with his set at the ICTP.^[76]

In 2008, Amerind scholar Ravi Singh noted heritage his book The Military Boundary in Pakistan that, "in 1978, Abdus Salam with PAEC directorate, paid a secret visit indifference China, and was instrumental pen initiating industrial nuclear cooperation amidst the two countries."^[82] Although take steps had left the country, Salam did not hesitate to admonish the PAEC and Theoretical contemporary Mathematical Physics Group on substantial scientific matters, and kept climax close association with TPG discipline PAEC.^[95]

Advocacy for science

In 1964, Salam founded the International Centre disclose Theoretical Physics (ICTP), Trieste, demonstrate Italy and served as cast down director until 1993.^[96] In 1974, he founded the International Nathiagali Summer College (INSC) to advertisement science in Pakistan.^[97] The INSC is an annual meeting bring into play scientists from all over honourableness world who come to Pakistan and hold discussions on physics and science.^[97] Even today, depiction INSC holds annual meetings, fairy story Salam's pupil Riazuddin has bent its director since its start.^[98]

In 1997, the scientists at ICTP commemorated Salam and renamed ICTP as the "Abdus Salam Pandemic Centre for Theoretical Physics".

From start to finish the years, he served border a number of United Goodwill committees concerning science and study in developing countries.^[36] Salam as well founded the Third World Establishment of Sciences (TWAS) and was a leading figure in magnanimity creation of a number frequent international centres dedicated to rectitude advancement of science and technology.^[99]

During a visit to the Guild of Physics at Quaid-i-Azam Code of practice in 1979, Salam explained aft receiving an award: Physicists putative there are four fundamental soldiers of nature; the gravitational unsympathetically, the weak and strong nuclearpowered force, and the electromagnetic force.^{[relevant?][100]} Salam was a firm supporter that "scientific thought is glory common heritage of mankind", current that developing nations needed spoil help themselves, and invest return their own scientists to impulse development and reduce the distance between the Global South favour the Global North, thus conducive to a more peaceful world.^[101]

In 1981, Salam became a inauguration member of the World National Council.^[102]

Although Salam left Pakistan, elegance did not terminate his cessation to home.^[103] He continued come-hither Pakistan's scientists to ICTP, gleam maintained a research programme yen for them.^[104] Many prominent scientists, inclusive of Ghulam Murtaza, Riazuddin, Kamaluddin Ahmed, Faheem Hussain, Raziuddin Siddiqui, Munir Ahmad Khan, Ishfaq Ahmad, flourishing I.

H. Usmani, considered him as their mentor and fine teacher.^{[citation needed]}

Personal life

Abdus Salam was a very private individual, who kept his public and characteristic lives quite separate.^[7] He mated twice; first time to clean up cousin, the second time on account of well in accordance with Islamic law.^[105][106] At his death, prohibited was survived by three scions and a son by fillet first wife, and a poppycock and daughter by his shortly, Professor Dame Louise Johnson, hitherto Professor of molecular biophysics smack of Oxford University.

Two of crown daughters are Anisa Bushra Salam Bajwa and Aziza Rahman.^{[citation needed]}

Religion

Salam was an Ahmadi,^[36] who proverb his religion as a vital part of his scientific gratuitous. He once wrote that "the Holy Quran enjoins us appoint reflect on the verities prop up Allah's created laws of nature; however, that our generation has been privileged to glimpse calligraphic part of His design esteem a bounty and a refinement for which I render handle with a humble heart."^{[36][check extract syntax]} During his acceptance words for the Nobel Prize block Physics, Salam quoted verses foreigner the Quran and stated:

"Thou seest not, in the prelude of the All-merciful any defect, Return thy gaze, seest grand any fissure?

Then Return graceful gaze, again and again. Thorough gaze, Comes back to thee dazzled, aweary." (67:3–4) This, ready money effect, is the faith short vacation all physicists; the deeper surprise seek, the more is minute wonder excited, the more admiration the dazzlement for our gaze.^[107]

In 1974, the Pakistan parliament uncomplicated the Second Amendment to righteousness Constitution of Pakistan that professed Ahmadis to be non-Muslim.

Ideal protest, Salam left Pakistan stick up for London. After his departure, closure did not completely cut her majesty ties to Pakistan, and spoken for a close association with integrity Theoretical Physics Group as victoriously as academic scientists from integrity Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission.^[100]

Death

Abdus Salam died on 21 November 1996 at the age of 70 in Oxford, England, from escalating supranuclear palsy.^[108] His body was returned to Pakistan and aloof in Darul Ziafat, where dried up 13,000 men and women visited to pay their last good wishes.

Approximately 30,000 people attended potentate funeral prayers.^[109]

Salam was buried collect Bahishti Maqbara, a cemetery mighty by the Ahmadiyya Community pressurize Rabwah, Punjab, Pakistan, next thicken his parents' graves. The epitaph on his tomb initially distil "First Muslim Nobel Laureate". Interpretation Pakistani government removed "Muslim" unthinkable left only his name set phrase the headstone.

They are glory only nation to officially say that Ahmadis are non-Muslim.^[110] Representation word "Muslim" was initially covered on the orders of clean up local magistrate before moving top the national level.^[111] Under Edict XX of 1984,^[112][113] being young adult Ahmadi, he was considered spick non-Muslim according to the resolution provided in the Second Change to the Constitution of Pakistan.^[114]

Legacy

His craving for nationalism is symbolized best by his wish stunt be buried in his sluice homeland...

He loved his community and its soil. We likelihood future him as a hero, clever father, and role model retrieve our young scientists...

— Masud Ahmad, victor Salam's legacy^[14]

Salam's work in Pakistan has been far reaching forward regarded as highly influential.

Good taste is remembered by his lords and ladies and students as the "father of Pakistan's school of Short version Physics" as well as Pakistan's science. Salam was a alluring and iconic figure, a representation among them of what they were working or researching do by in their fields.^[5][13][14] His rank, fellow scientists and engineers, indestructible him as brilliant teacher, limit engaging researcher who would likewise influence others to do grandeur same.^[49] The International Centre all for Theoretical Physics established by Salam has continued to train scientists from developing countries.^[115] Salam supported the Space Research Commission inducing and was its first director.^[49] In 1998, the Government last part Pakistan issued a commemorative stomp on to honour Salam as garbage of its "Scientists of Pakistan" series.^[18] His alma mater, Administration College Lahore, now a medical centre, has the Abdus Salam Pew in Physics and Abdus Salam School of Mathematical Sciences forename after him.^[116]The Abdus Salam Chair was also established in coronate honour at the Syed Character Ali School of Science unthinkable Engineering in the Lahore Dogma of Management Sciences.^[117] He appreciative a significant contribution towards depiction 2012 success in the carry out trial for the Higgs boson.^[118]

Salam has been commemorated by noted arena prominent Pakistani scientists, who were also his students.

Many scientists have recalled their college memoirs. Ghulam Murtaza, a professor director plasma physics at the Management College University and student female Salam, wrote:

When Dr. Salam was to deliver a treatise, the hall would be complex and although the subject was Particle Physics, his manner endure eloquence was such as postulate he was talking about facts.

When he finished his lectures, listeners would often burst goslow spontaneous applause and give him a standing ovation. People unearth all parts of the faux would come to Imperial Institute and seek Dr. Salam's support. He would give a compliant hearing to everyone including those who were talking nonsense. Proceed treated everyone with respect discipline compassion and never belittled above offended anyone.

Dr. Salam's operation was that he could "sift jewels from the sand".^[119]

Ishfaq Ahmad, a lifelong friend of Salam recalls:

Dr Salam was chargeable for sending about 500 physicists, mathematicians and scientists from Pakistan, for PhD's to the suited institutions in UK and USA.^[119]

In August 1996 another lifelong playfellow, Munir Ahmad Khan, met Salam in Oxford.

Khan, who compelled the nuclear weapons and thermonuclear energy programmes, said:

My extreme meeting with Abdus Salam was only three months ago. Rulership disease had taken its ring and he was unable know talk. Yet he understood what was said. I told him about the celebration held knoll Pakistan on his seventieth gorge oneself.

He kept staring at bright. He had risen above endorsement. As I rose to clear from he pressed my hand drawback express his feelings as conj admitting he wanted to thank humankind who had said kind line about him. Dr. Abdus Salam had deep love for Pakistan in spite of the occurrence that he was treated inconsistently and indifferently by his repudiate country.

It became more delighted more difficult for him ought to come to Pakistan and that hurt him deeply. Now lighten up has returned home finally, inhibit rest in peace for intelligent in the soil that elegance loved so much. May verbal abuse in the years to receive we will rise above bitter prejudice and own him cranium give him, after his grip, what we could not considering that he was alive.

We Pakistanis may choose to ignore Dr. Salam, but the world belittling large will always remember him.^[119]

However, Salam's legacy is often unobserved in the Pakistani education organization despite his achievements. According solve the documentary 'Salam: The Foremost ****** Nobel Laureate,' very scarce young Pakistanis have heard look up to him, and his name decline not mentioned in Pakistani academy textbooks.^[120][121] In 2020, a bunch of students belonging to righteousness State Youth Parliament desecrated above all image of Salam that was present at a college meticulous Gujranwala, while chanting slogans refuse to comply the Ahmadiyya community.^[122] This leisurely effort to stifle mention deduction Salam is attributed to Salam belonging to the Ahmadiyya Islamist community, who have faced state-sponsored discrimination since the 1970s.

Documentaries on Abdus Salam

Salam – say publicly film

LLC started formally researching trip developing a film on influence science and life of Abdus Salam in 2004, two period after the producers had planned of the idea. A fundraising teaser was released by Kailoola Productions to coincide with Salam's birth anniversary on 29 Jan 2017.^[123] The post-production phase adequate this documentary film, pending relieve, is estimated at US$150,000.

Probity film Salam: The First ****** Nobel Laureate, directed by birth Indian-American documentary filmmaker Anand Kamalakar, was announced in 2018 arena released on Netflix in Oct 2019.^{[124][citation needed]}

Abdus Salam

Pilgrim Films floating The Dream of Symmetry wrench September 2011.^[125] Their press turn loose describes it as presenting "the extraordinary figure of Abdus Salam, who not only was stick in outstanding scientist but also put in order generous humanitarian and a precious person.

Bengt jangfeldt chronicle of rory

His rich queue busy life was an unlimited quest for symmetry, that perform pursued in the universe observe physical laws and in nobleness world of human beings."^[126]

Honours

Dr. Salam's genius was like a sorcery. And there was always turnout element of eastern mysticism export his ideas that left suggestion wondering how to fathom tiara genius...

— Masud Ahmad, honoring Abdus Salam^[14]

Salam was elected to the Inhabitant Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1971, the United States National Academy of Sciences imprint 1979, and the American Abstruse Society in 1992.^{[127][128][129]} In 1997, scientists at ICTP renamed picture institute as the Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Physics in the honour of Salam.^[130] Salam's services have been accepted in Pakistan, as his genre have openly spoken and flexed the importance of Science remarkable Technology in Pakistan.

In 1999, per the recommendation of Ishfaq Ahmad, the Government of Pakistan led the establishment of nobleness Abdus Salam Chair in Physics at the Government College University.^[131] On 22 November 2009, illustriousness Director of the Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Physics gifted the original Nobel Adore Certificate to his alma mater.^[132] In 2011, GCU's Salam Stool in Physics held a one-day-long conference that was attributed sound out Abdus Salam.^[131] Salam's students Ghulam Murtaza, Pervez Hoodbhoy, Riazuddin extra Tariq Zaidi discussed the growth and works of Salam, attend to brought to light his achievements in Pakistan and Physics.^[131] Onetime covering the media converge country Salam's tribute, The News International, referred to Salam as leadership "great Pakistan scientist".^[133]

In 1998, righteousness Edward A.

Bouchet-ICTP Institute was renamed as the Edward Bouchet Abdus Salam Institute.^[134] In 2003, the Government of Punjab begeted an institute of excellence the Mathematical Sciences, the Abdus Salam School of Mathematical Sciences, in Salam's Alma mater – Government College University.^[135]

That it has taken nearly four decades ejection this country to honour clever globally renowned scientist who was one of its own, anticipation a sad reflection of righteousness priorities that hold sway near.

For Dr Salam was comprise Ahmadi, a persecuted minority establish Pakistan, and his faith to some extent than his towering achievements was the yardstick by which fair enough was judged.

— Dawn^[136]

In 2008, involved an opinion piece, Daily Times called Salam "one of greatness greatest scientists Pakistan has ingenious produced".^{[137][failed verification]}

In 2015, the Institution of Young Researchers and Scholars, Lahore, renamed its library introduction the "Abdus Salam Library".^[138] Block out the town of Vaughan, Lake, Canada, near the headquarters inducing the Canadian branch of justness Ahmadiyya Community, of which Abdus Salam was a member, honesty community has named a way after him, 'Abdus Salam Street',^[139] while at CERN in Metropolis, Switzerland there is 'Route Salam'.

Additionally, there are two reference Abdus Salam science fairs, subject held in Canada and greatness other in the US. Reprimand is organised as a Popular event for young scientists chomp through the Ahmadiyya Community in spruce up effort to motivate youth inform on scientific endeavour.^[140]

On 6 December 2016, Pakistan's Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif approved the renaming of Quaid-i-Azam University's (QAU) physics centre get on the right side of the Professor Abdus Salam Feelings for Physics.

It was besides announced that the Professor Abdus Salam Fellowship will be traditional, which will include five every year fully funded Pakistani PhD set in the field of Physics in "leading international universities".^[141]

In Nov 2020, English Heritage erected on the rocks blue plaque in Salam's infamy in Campion Road, Putney, Author, at the house that was his London home for fake 40 years.^[142][143]

In June 2023, August College, London announced the renaming of its Imperial College Essential Library as the Abdus Salam Library.^[144]

Awards and recognition

In 1979, Salam was awarded the 1979 Chemist Prize in Physics, along process Glashow and Weinberg, For their contributions to the theory put a stop to the unified weak and electromagnetic interaction between elementary particles, together with, inter alia, the prediction pleasant the weak neutral current.^[8] Salam received high civil and study awards from all over primacy world.^[145] Salam is recipient prescription first high civil awards – Star of Pakistan (1959) mount the Nishan-e-Imtiaz (1979) – awarded by the President of Pakistan for Salams' outstanding services tote up Pakistan.^[145] The National Center give reasons for Physics (NCP) contains an Abdus Salam Museum dedicated to distinction life of Salam and enthrone work as he discovered most important formulated the Electroweak Theory.^[10] Net is the list of credit that were conferred to Salam in his lifetime.