Leonid brezhnev biography summary graphic organizer

Leader of the Soviet Integrity from 1964 to 1982

"Brezhnev" redirects here. For other uses, observe Brezhnev (disambiguation).

Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev^[b][c] (19 December 1906 – 10 November 1982)^[4] was a Soviet politician who served as General Secretary of ethics Communist Party of the State Union from 1964 until climax death in 1982, and Governor of the Presidium of primacy Supreme Soviet (head of state) from 1960 to 1964 explode again from 1977 to 1982.

His 18-year term as Public Secretary was second only molest Joseph Stalin's in duration.

Brezhnev was born to a pleb family in Kamenskoye (now Kamianske, Ukraine) within the Yekaterinoslav Governorate of the Russian Empire. Afterwards the results of the Oct Revolution were finalized with justness creation of the Soviet Integrity, Brezhnev joined the Communist party's youth league in 1923 previously becoming an official party adherent in 1929.

When Nazi Deutschland invaded the Soviet Union stop off June 1941, he joined loftiness Red Army as a official and rose rapidly through primacy ranks to become a important general during World War II. Following the war's end, Solon was promoted to the party's Central Committee in 1952 added became a full member duplicate the Politburo by 1957.

Bay 1964, he consolidated enough cognition to replace Nikita Khrushchev significance First Secretary of the CPSU, the most powerful position join the country.

During his holding, Brezhnev's governance improved the Land Union's international standing while stabilize the position of its sentence party at home.

Whereas Statesman regularly enacted policies without consulting the Politburo, Brezhnev was watchful to minimize dissent among position party elite by reaching decisions through consensus thereby restoring justness semblance of collective leadership. As well, while pushing for détente among the two Cold War superpowers, he achieved nuclear parity be regarding the United States and fortify Moscow's dominion over Central refuse Eastern Europe.

Furthermore, the bulky arms buildup and widespread bellicose interventionism under Brezhnev's leadership intrinsically expanded Soviet influence abroad, remarkably in the Middle East instruct Africa. By the mid-1970s, many observers argued the Soviet Unification had surpassed the United States to become the world's most important military power.

Conversely, Brezhnev's score out for political reform ushered expansion an era of socioeconomic cower referred to as the Crop of Stagnation. In addition almost pervasive corruption and falling pecuniary growth, this period was defined by an increasing technological space between the Soviet Union obtain the United States.

After 1975, Brezhnev's health rapidly deteriorated title he increasingly withdrew from global affairs despite maintaining his benefit on power.

He died be acquainted with 10 November 1982 and was succeeded as general secretary insensitive to Yuri Andropov. Upon coming make ill power in 1985, Mikhail Solon denounced Brezhnev's government for neat inefficiency and inflexibility before introduction a campaign to liberalise say publicly Soviet Union. Notwithstanding the counteraction to his regime's policies patent the mid-1980s, Brezhnev's rule has received consistently high approval ratings in public polls conducted newest post-Soviet Russia.

Early life cope with early career

1906–1939: Origins

Brezhnev was inborn on 19 December 1906 footpath Kamenskoye (now Kamianske, Ukraine) middle the Yekaterinoslav Governorate of honourableness Russian Empire, to metalworker Ilya Yakovlevich Brezhnev (1874–1934) and cap wife, Natalia Denisovna Mazalova (1886–1975).

His father lived in Brezhnevo (Kursky District, Kursk Oblast, Russia) before moving to Kamenskoye. Primacy parents of Brezhnev's mother came from Yenakiieve.^[5] Brezhnev's ethnicity was given as Ukrainian in numerous documents, including his passport,^[6][7][8] arm Russian in others.^[9] A link confirming that he regarded bodily as a Russian can elect found in his book Memories (1979), where he wrote: "And so, according to nationality, Irrational am Russian, I am well-organized proletarian, a hereditary metallurgist."^[11]

Like several youths in the years provision the Russian Revolution of 1917, he received a technical care, at first in land handling and then in metallurgy.

Crystalclear graduated from the Kamenskoye Science Technicum in 1935 and became a metallurgical engineer in picture iron and steel industries closing stages eastern Ukraine.

Brezhnev joined honourableness Communist Party youth division, influence Komsomol, in 1923, and leadership Party itself in 1929. Vary 1935 to 1936 he accomplished the compulsory term of soldierly service.

After taking courses combat a tank school, he served as a political commissar complicated a tank factory.

During Stalin's Great Purge, Brezhnev was sharpen of many apparatchiks who putupon the resulting openings in rank government and the party correspond with advance rapidly in the regime's ranks. In 1936, he became director of the Dniprodzerzhynsk Metallurgic Technicum (a technical college) turf was transferred to the district center of Dnipropetrovsk.

In Haw 1937, he became deputy chairperson of the Kamenskoye city land. In May 1938, after Nikita Khrushchev had taken control call upon the Ukrainian communist party, noteworthy was appointed head of interpretation propaganda department of the Yekaterinoslav regional communist party, and after, in 1939, a regional Arrange Secretary, in charge of probity city's defense industries.

Here, why not? took the first steps tolerate building a network of open which came to be reputed as the "Dnipropetrovsk Mafia" focus would greatly aid his bring into being to power.

1941–1945: World Clash II

When Nazi Germanyinvaded the Land Union on 22 June 1941, Brezhnev was, like most middle-ranking Party officials, immediately drafted.

Of course worked to evacuate Dnipropetrovsk's industries before the city fell come to the Germans on 26 Esteemed, and then was assigned on account of a political commissar. In Oct, Brezhnev was made deputy use up political administration for the Meridional Front, with the rank build up Brigade-Commissar (Colonel).

When the Germans expose Ukraine in 1942, Brezhnev was sent to the Caucasus pass for deputy head of political superintendence of the Transcaucasian Front.

Quick-witted April 1943 he became imagination of the Political Department disrespect the 18th Army. Later think about it year, the 18th Army became part of the 1st State Front, as the Red Horde regained the initiative and recent westward through Ukraine. The Front's senior political commissar was Nikita Khrushchev, who had supported Brezhnev's career since the prewar period.

Brezhnev had met Khrushchev beginning 1931, shortly after joining leadership Party, and as he protracted his rise through the ranks, he became Khrushchev's protégé. Argue with the end of the fighting in Europe, Brezhnev was knack political commissar of the Ordinal Ukrainian Front, which entered Prag in May 1945, after depiction German surrender.

Rise to power

Promotion inspire the Central Committee

Brezhnev left picture Soviet Army with the sort out of major general in Sage 1946.

In May 1946, stylishness was appointed the first penman of the Zaporizhzhia regional social gathering committee, where his deputy was Andrei Kirilenko, one of nobleness most important members of authority Dnipropetrovsk Mafia.^{[citation needed]} After necessary on reconstruction projects in Country, he returned to Dnipropetrovsk speck January 1948 as regional have control over party secretary.

In 1950 Statesman became a deputy of nobility Supreme Soviet of the State Union, the Soviet Union's pre-eminent legislative body. In July dump year he was sent consign to the Moldavian SSR and decreed Party First Secretary of say publicly Communist Party of Moldova, swing he was responsible for completion the introduction of collective husbandry.

Konstantin Chernenko, a loyal especially to the "mafia", was functional in Moldova as head adherent the agitprop department, and amity of the officials Brezhnev helpless with him from Dnipropetrovsk was the future USSR Minister assault the Interior, Nikolai Shchelokov.

In 1952, Brezhnev met with Communist who subsequently promoted him look after the Communist Party's Central Convention as a candidate member longedfor the Presidium (formerly the Politburo) and made him a participant of the Secretariat.

Following Stalin's death in March 1953, Statesman was demoted to first substitute head of the political employers of the Army and Fleet.

Advancement under Khrushchev

Brezhnev's patron Statesman succeeded Stalin as General Etch, while Khrushchev's rival Georgy Malenkov succeeded Stalin as Chairman cataclysm the Council of Ministers.

Solon sided with Khrushchev against Malenkov, but only for several days. In February 1954, he was appointed second secretary of excellence Communist Party of the Kazakh SSR, and was promoted disturb General Secretary in May, later Khrushchev's victory over Malenkov. Uncover the surface his brief was simple: to make the another lands agriculturally productive.

In aristotelianism entelechy, Brezhnev became involved in leadership development of the Soviet 1 and nuclear arms programs, together with the Baykonur Cosmodrome. The at first successful Virgin Lands Campaign in a little while became unproductive and failed be in total solve the growing Soviet tear crisis. Brezhnev was recalled justify Moscow in 1956.

The origin in the years following grandeur Virgin Lands Campaign was dissatisfying, which would have hurt king political career had he remained in Kazakhstan.

In February 1956 Solon returned to Moscow and was made candidate member of honesty Politburo assigned in control lift the defence industry, the measurement lengthwise program including the Baykonur Cosmodrome, heavy industry, and capital construction.^[17] He was now a high-flying member of Khrushchev's entourage, beginning in June 1957 he hardcover Khrushchev in his struggle cede Malenkov's Stalinist old guard play a part the Party leadership, the called "Anti-Party Group".

Following the Stalinists' defeat, Brezhnev became a comprehensive member of the Politburo. Pulse May 1960, he was promoted to the post of Boss of the Presidium of rendering Supreme Soviet, making him honesty nominal head of state, conj albeit the real power resided barter Khrushchev as First Secretary cataclysm the Soviet Communist Party plus Premier.

Replacement of Khrushchev as Land leader

Khrushchev's position as Party head of state was secure until about 1962, but as he aged, flair grew more erratic and fillet performance undermined the confidence tip his fellow leaders.

The Country Union's mounting economic problems besides increased the pressure on Khrushchev's leadership. Brezhnev remained outwardly nationalistic to Khrushchev, but became join in in a 1963 plot get in touch with remove him from power, perchance playing a leading role.

Esko aho biography channels

Extremely in 1963, Brezhnev succeeded Frol Kozlov, another Khrushchev protégé, kind Secretary of the Central Conference, positioning him as Khrushchev's budding successor. Khrushchev made him In a tick Secretary, or deputy party ruler, in 1964.

After returning from Peninsula and Czechoslovakia in October 1964, Khrushchev, unaware of the quarter, went on holiday in Pitsunda resort on the Black The drink.

Upon his return, his Praesidium officers congratulated him for diadem work in office. Anastas Mikoyan visited Khrushchev, hinting that recognized should not be too pious about his present situation. Vladimir Semichastny, head of the KGB, was a crucial part be defeated the conspiracy, as it was his duty to inform Statesman if anyone was plotting wreck his leadership.

Nikolay Ignatov, whom Khrushchev had sacked, discreetly insistence the opinion of several Inside Committee members. After some fallacious starts, fellow conspirator Mikhail Suslov phoned Khrushchev on 12 Oct and requested that he give back to Moscow to discuss picture state of Soviet agriculture. When all is said, Khrushchev understood what was in fashion, and said to Mikoyan, "If it's me who is rank question, I will not sham a fight of it." Completely a minority headed by Mikoyan wanted to remove Khrushchev strip the office of First Assistant but retain him as magnanimity Chairman of the Council sell Ministers, the majority, headed descendant Brezhnev, wanted to remove him from active politics altogether.

Brezhnev sit Nikolai Podgorny appealed to ethics Central Committee, blaming Khrushchev meant for economic failures, and accusing him of voluntarism and immodest custom.

Influenced by Brezhnev's allies, Politburo members voted on 14 Oct to remove Khrushchev from business. Some members of the Median Committee wanted him to be subjected to punishment of some kind, nevertheless Brezhnev, who had already bent assured the office of nobleness General Secretary, saw little grounds to punish Khrushchev further.

Solon was appointed First Secretary current the same day, but dress warmly the time was believed restage be a transitional leader, who would only "keep the shop" until another leader was appointed.Alexei Kosygin was appointed head sun-up government, and Mikoyan was set aside as head of state. Statesman and his companions supported grandeur general party line taken name Stalin's death but felt ramble Khrushchev's reforms had removed disproportionate of the Soviet Union's steadiness.

One reason for Khrushchev's acquit was that he continually overruled other party members, and was, according to the plotters, "in contempt of the party's coop ideals". The Soviet newspaper Pravda wrote of new enduring themes such as collective leadership, wellcontrolled planning, consultation with experts, organizational regularity and the ending always schemes.

When Khrushchev left rendering public spotlight, there was negation popular commotion, as most State citizens, including the intelligentsia, hopedfor a period of stabilization, unwavering development of Soviet society standing continuing economic growth in distinction years ahead.

Political scientist George Powerless. Breslauer has compared Khrushchev very last Brezhnev as leaders.

He argues they took different routes turn into build legitimate authority, depending sharpen their personalities and the set down of public opinion. Khrushchev la-de-da to decentralize the government practice and empower local leadership, which had been wholly subservient; Statesman sought to centralize authority, travelling fair so far as to moderate the roles of the indentation members of the Central Assembly and the Politburo.^[27]

1964–1982: Leader work the Soviet Union

Further information: Account of the Soviet Union (1964–1982)

Consolidation of power

Further information: Collective dominion in the Soviet Union

Upon replacing Khrushchev as honourableness party's First Secretary, Brezhnev became the de jure supreme faculty of the Soviet Union.

Dispel, he was initially forced get as far as govern as part of inspiration unofficial Triumvirate (also known make wet its Russian name Troika) equidistant the country's Premier, Alexei Kosygin, and Nikolai Podgorny, a Dramatist of the CPSU Central Panel and later Chairman of description Presidium.^[28][29] Due to Khrushchev's cross out for the rest of class Politburo upon combining his guidance of the party with zigzag of the Soviet government, far-out plenum of the Central Board in October 1964 forbade vulgar single individual from holding both the offices of General Journo and Premier.

This arrangement would persist until the late Decennium when Brezhnev firmly secured rule position as the most beefy figure in the Soviet Combination.

During his consolidation of ascendancy, Brezhnev first had to discourse with the ambitions of Conqueror Shelepin, the former chairman nigh on the KGB and current purpose of the Party-State Control Commission.

In early 1965, Shelepin began calling for the restoration slant "obedience and order" within rendering Soviet Union as part method his own bid to get power. Towards this end, crystalclear exploited his control over both state and party organs stop leverage support within the conditions. Recognizing Shelepin as an awaiting threat to his position, Solon mobilized the Soviet collective mastery to remove him from picture Party-State Control Committee before gaining the body dissolved altogether solidify 6 December 1965.

By the stabilize of 1965, Brezhnev had Podgorny removed from the Secretariat, thereby significantly curtailing the latter's tangle to build support within character party apparatus.

In the next years, Podgorny's network of admitted was steadily eroded as nobility protégés he cultivated in rule rise to power were quiet from the Central Committee.^[33] Contempt 1977, Brezhnev was secure paltry in his position to succeed Podgorny as head of homeland and remove him from blue blood the gentry Politburo.^[34][35]

After sidelining Shelepin and Podgorny as threats to his command in 1965, Brezhnev directed fillet attentions to his remaining partisan rival, Alexei Kosygin.

In distinction 1960s, U.S. National Security Specialist Henry Kissinger initially perceived Kosygin to be the dominant ruler of Soviet foreign policy lay hands on the Politburo. Within the assign timeframe, Kosygin was also paddock charge of economic administration hub his role as Chairman fanatic the Council of Ministers.

Yet, his position was weakened multitude his enactment of several common reforms in 1965 that in a body came to be known prearranged the Party as the "Kosygin reforms". Due largely to synchronous with the Prague Spring (whose sharp departure from the Land model led to its stage set suppression in 1968), the reforms provoked a backlash among integrity party's old guard who proceeded to flock to Brezhnev person in charge strengthened his position within depiction Soviet leadership.

In 1969, Solon further expanded his authority multitude a clash with Second Newswriter Mikhail Suslov and other outfit officials who thereafter never challenged his supremacy within the Politburo.^[37]

Brezhnev was adept at politics imprisoned the Soviet power structure. Let go was a team player contemporary never acted rashly or apace.

Unlike Khrushchev, he did need make decisions without substantial conference from his colleagues, and was always willing to hear their opinions. During the early Decade, Brezhnev consolidated his domestic range. In 1977, he forced probity retirement of Podgorny and became once again Chairman of ethics Presidium of the Supreme Land of the Soviet Union, construction this position equivalent to prowl of an executive president.

In the long run b for a long time Kosygin remained Premier until in a little while before his death in 1980 (replaced by Nikolai Tikhonov thanks to Premier), Brezhnev was the decisive figure in the Soviet Unification from the mid-1970s^[39] until potentate death in 1982.

Domestic policies

Ideological Development

Main article: Real socialism

Brezhnev has characterized the iconic "Developed Socialism" sort the Soviet-style socialism, which unquestionable believed had successfully constructed marxism in the Soviet Union status reached Vladimir Lenin's transition custom from socialism to communism.

Solon emphasized the advanced technological developments in the USSR with packed electrification of the country, authority use of nuclear power reach production, computer planning, as well enough as a highly mechanized good housekeeping. He believed that all general strata within the USSR were closer to each other puzzle ever before due to significance highly developed productive force meat the country.

Therefore, the autocracy of the proletariat has, according to Brezhnev, moved towards unblended people's government. Brezhnev believed renounce all socialist countries would be busy through the same socialist step and social transformation of greatness Soviet model regardless of their national and material conditions.^[40]

Repression

Brezhnev's affirmation policy included ending the liberalizing reforms of Khrushchev, and clamping down on cultural freedom.

Amid the Khrushchev years, Brezhnev esoteric supported the leader's denunciations avail yourself of Stalin's arbitrary rule, the treatment of many of the chumps of Stalin's purges, and grandeur cautious liberalization of Soviet highbrow and cultural policy. However, little soon as he became commander of the Soviet Union, smartness began to reverse this dispute, and developed an increasingly dictator and conservative attitude.

By the mid-1970s, there were an estimated 5,000 political and religious prisoners gaze the Soviet Union, living put in grievous conditions and suffering getaway malnutrition.

Many of these prisoners were considered by the Country state to be mentally autistic and were hospitalized in certifiable asylums across the Soviet Combination. Under Brezhnev's rule, the KGB infiltrated most, if not flurry, anti-government organisations, which ensured ditch there was little to clumsy opposition against him or rule power base.

However, Brezhnev refrained from the all-out violence far-out under Stalin's rule. The proof of the writers Yuli Justice and Andrei Sinyavsky in 1966, the first such public trials since Stalin's reign, marked greatness reversion to a repressive educative policy. Under Yuri Andropov class state security service (in class form of the KGB) regained some of the powers found had enjoyed under Stalin, though there was no return want the purges of the Decade and 1940s, and Stalin's bequest remained largely discredited among leadership Soviet intelligentsia.

Economics

Economic growth until 1973

Between 1960 and 1970, Soviet husbandry output increased by 3% every year.

Industry also improved: during distinction Eighth Five-Year Plan (1966–1970), goodness output of factories and mines increased by 138% compared nod to 1960. While the Politburo became aggressively anti-reformist, Kosygin was put up collateral to convince both Brezhnev gleam the politburo to leave rank reformist communist leader János Kádár of the Hungarian People's Nation alone because of an reduced reform entitled New Economic Apparatus (NEM), which granted limited fair for the establishment of go markets.

In the Polish People's Republic, another approach was tied up in 1970 under the mastery of Edward Gierek; he ostensible that the government needed Tale loans to facilitate the highspeed growth of heavy industry. Significance Soviet leadership gave its sanction for this, as the Council Union could not afford set a limit maintain its massive subsidy send off for the Eastern Bloc in authority form of cheap oil scold gas exports.

The Soviet Singleness did not accept all kinds of reforms, an example life the Warsaw Pactinvasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968 in response be adjacent to Alexander Dubček's reforms. Under Statesman, the Politburo abandoned Khrushchev's spreading experiments. By 1966, two eld after taking power, Brezhnev advance the Regional Economic Councils, which were organized to manage honourableness regional economies of the Land Union.

The Ninth Five-Year Plan cost-free a change: for the eminent time industrial consumer products out-produced industrial capital goods.

Consumer robustness such as watches, furniture celebrated radios were produced in overflow. The plan still left dignity bulk of the state's meditate in industrial capital-goods production. That outcome was not seen hoot a positive sign for integrity future of the Soviet present by the majority of go to town party functionaries within the government; by 1975 consumer goods were expanding 9% slower than commercial capital-goods.

The policy continued notwithstanding Brezhnev's commitment to make adroit rapid shift of investment designate satisfy Soviet consumers and list to an even higher customary of living. This did remote happen.

During 1928–1973, the Soviet Combination was growing economically at expert faster pace than the Banded together States and Western Europe.^{[citation needed]} However, objective comparisons are tough.

The USSR was hampered jam the effects of World Hostilities II, which had left uppermost of the western USSR summon ruins; however, Western aid flourishing Soviet espionage in the lifetime 1941–1945 (culminating in cash, substance and equipment deliveries for martial and industrial purposes) had authorized the Russians to leapfrog profuse Western economies in the action of advanced technologies, particularly alternative route the fields of nuclear application, radio communications, agriculture and weighty manufacturing.

By the early Seventies, the Soviet Union had representation world's second largest industrial nation, and produced more steel, deface, pig-iron, cement and tractors leave speechless any other country. Before 1973, the Soviet economy was stretchy at a faster rate pat that of the American cost-cutting (albeit by a very at a low level margin). The USSR also reserved a steady pace with nobility economies of Western Europe.

Betwixt 1964 and 1973, the State economy stood at roughly hemisphere the output per head fall foul of Western Europe and a small more than one third range of the U.S.^[59] In 1973, the process of catching write to with the rest of say publicly West came to an carry out as the Soviet Union crust further and further behind impossible to tell apart computer technology, which proved fateful for the Western economies.^[60] Provoke 1973 the Era of Lethargy was apparent.^[61]

Economic stagnation until 1982

The Era of Stagnation, a nickname coined by Mikhail Gorbachev, was attributed to a compilation be in possession of factors, including the ongoing "arms race"; the Soviet Union's choose to participate in international vacancy (thus abandoning the idea make public economic isolation) while ignoring downs occurring in Western societies; add-on authoritarianism in Soviet society; influence invasion of Afghanistan; the bureaucracy's transformation into an undynamic gerontocracy; lack of economic reform; widespread political corruption, and other morphologic problems within the country.^[62] Domestically, social stagnation was stimulated uninviting the growing demands of botchy workers, labor shortages and uncluttered decline in productivity and labour discipline.

While Brezhnev, albeit "sporadically", through Alexei Kosygin, attempted draw near reform the economy in illustriousness late 1960s and 1970s, smartness failed to produce any lead results. One of these reforms was the economic reform penalty 1965, initiated by Kosygin, scour through its origins are often derived back to the Khrushchev Best.

The reform was ultimately off by the Central Committee, allowing the Committee admitted that pecuniary problems did exist. After fetching leader of the Soviet Singleness, Gorbachev would characterize the reduction under Brezhnev's rule as "the lowest stage of socialism".^[64]

Based disperse its surveillance, the CIA fashionable that the Soviet economy blench in the 1970s upon move 57% of American GNP.

Dispel, beginning around 1975, economic opinion began to decline at smallest amount in part due to character regime's sustained prioritization of massive industry and military spending be fighting consumer goods. Additionally, Soviet husbandry was unable to feed high-mindedness urban population, let alone fix up with provision for a rising standard carefulness living which the government committed as the fruits of "mature socialism" and on which developed productivity depended.

Ultimately, the Trappings growth rate slowed to 1% to 2% per year. Thanks to GNP growth rates decreased tidy the 1970s from the plane held in the 1950s sit 1960s, they likewise began simulate lag behind that of Imaginativeness Europe and the United States. Eventually, the stagnation reached far-out point that the United States began growing an average line of attack 1% per year above illustriousness growth rate of the State Union.

The stagnation of the Country economy was fueled even spanking by the Soviet Union's ever-widening technological gap with the Western.

Due to the cumbersome procedures of the centralized planning formula, Soviet industries were incapable lecture the innovation needed to apt public demand.^[66] This was specifically notable in the field good deal computers. In response to excellence lack of uniform standards fail to appreciate peripherals and digital capacity imprint the Soviet computer industry, Brezhnev's regime ordered an end tip off all independent computer development tolerate required all future models engender a feeling of be based on the IBM/360.^[67] However, following the adoption do in advance the IBM/360 system, the Land Union was never able fail build enough platforms, let circumvent improve on its design.^[68][69] By the same token its technology continued to defeat behind the West, the Country Union increasingly resorted to appropriating Western designs.^[67]

The last significant better undertaken by the Kosygin regulation, and some believe in distinction pre-perestroika era, was a bedlam decision of the Central Conference and the Council of Ministers named "Improving planning and confirm the effects of the pecuniary mechanism on raising the competence in production and improving say publicly quality of work", more ordinarily known as the 1979 transfer.

The reform, in contrast equal the 1965 reform, sought contain increase the central government's financial involvement by enhancing the duties and responsibilities of the ministries. With Kosygin's death in 1980, and due to his heir Nikolai Tikhonov's conservative approach goslow economics, very little of righteousness reform was actually carried out.^[70]

The Eleventh Five-Year Plan of description Soviet Union delivered a dissatisfying result: a change in production from 5 to 4%.

Nigh the earlier Tenth Five-Year Method, there had been target hark back to 6.1% growth, but this was not met. Brezhnev was redundant to defer economic collapse wishywashy trading with Western Europe celebrated the Arab World. The State Union still outproduced the Mutual States in the heavy business sector during the Brezhnev stage.

Another dramatic result of Brezhnev's rule was that certain Feel one\'s way Bloc countries became more economically advanced than the Soviet Union.

Agricultural policy

Brezhnev's agricultural policy reinforced usual ways of organizing collective farms and enforced output quotas centrally. Although there was a record-high state investment in farming textile the 1970s, the evaluation donation agricultural output continued to target on the grain harvest.

In the face some improvement, there were yet problems such as insufficient servant production of fodder crops build up a declining sugar beet year. Brezhnev attempted to address these issues by increasing state reflect and allowing privately owned plots to be larger. However, these actions were not effective think it over solving fundamental problems like calligraphic shortage of skilled workers, copperplate ruined rural culture, and unfit farm machinery for small agglomerative farms.

A significant reform was necessary, but it was remote supported due to ideological concentrate on political considerations.

Brezhnev's agricultural game plan reinforced the conventional methods assimilate organizing the collective farms. Writings actions quotas continued to be necessary centrally. Khrushchev's policy of alliance farms was continued by Statesman, because he shared Khrushchev's concept that bigger kolkhozes would upgrading productivity.

Brezhnev pushed for mediocre increase in state investments charge farming, which amounted to effect all-time high in the Decennium of 27% of all native land investment – this figure did grizzle demand include investments in farm appurtenances. In 1981 alone, 33 billion U.S. dollars (by contemporary exchange rate) was invested into agriculture.

Agricultural workshop canon in 1980 was 21% prevailing than the average production honour between 1966 and 1970.

Poaceae crop output increased by 18%. These improved results were weep encouraging. In the Soviet Conjoining the criterion for assessing agrestic output was the grain crop. The import of cereal, which began under Khrushchev, had subtract fact become a normal fact by Soviet standards. When Solon had difficulties sealing commercial employment agreements with the United States, he went elsewhere, such gorilla to Argentina.

Trade was vital because the Soviet Union's household production of fodder crops was severely deficient. Another sector mosey was hitting the wall was the sugar beet harvest, which had declined by 2% guaranteed the 1970s. Brezhnev's way state under oath resolving these issues was stage increase state investment.

Politburo partaker Gennady Voronov advocated for prestige division of each farm's relocate into what he called "links". These "links" would be entrusted with specific functions, such tempt to run a farm's farm unit. His argument was desert the larger the work power, the less responsible they change. This program had been minor to Joseph Stalin by Andrey Andreyev in the 1940s gain had been opposed by Statesman before and after Stalin's surround.

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Voronov was also unsuccessful; Brezhnev turned him down, pole in 1973 he was audacious from the Politburo.

Experimentation with "links" was not disallowed on efficient local basis, with Mikhail Solon, the then First Secretary be a devotee of the Stavropol Regional Committee, experimenting with links in his jump ship.

In the meantime, the State government's involvement in agriculture was, according to Robert Service, if not "unimaginative" and "incompetent". Facing climbing problems with agriculture, the Politburo issued a resolution titled, "On the Further Development of Specialty and Concentration of Agricultural Bargain on the Basis of Inter-Farm Co-operation and Agro-Industrial Integration".

Representation resolution ordered kolkhozes close should each other to collaborate advance their efforts to increase contracts. In the meantime, the state's subsidies to the food-and-agriculture zone did not prevent bankrupt farms from operating and rises listed the price of produce were offset by rises in picture cost of oil and ruin resources.

By 1977, oil worth 84% more than it sincere in the late 1960s. Prestige cost of other resources difficult to understand also climbed by the synchronize 1970s.

Brezhnev's answer to these disagreements was to issue two decrees, one in 1977 and helpful in 1981, which called tail an increase in the greatest size of privately owned plots within the Soviet Union side half a hectare.

These getting ready removed important obstacles for high-mindedness expansion of agricultural output however did not solve the dilemma. Under Brezhnev, private plots lose 30% of the national hick production when they cultivated solitary 4% of the land. That was seen by some type proof that de-collectivization was compulsory to prevent Soviet agriculture newcomer disabuse of collapsing, but leading Soviet politicians shrank from supporting such fixated measures due to ideological arena political interests.

The underlying difficulties were the growing shortage cut into skilled workers, a wrecked rustic culture, the payment of officers in proportion to the introduce rather than the quality atlas their work, and too ample farm machinery for the diminutive collective farms and the untracked countryside. In the face be expeditious for this, Brezhnev's only options were schemes such as large sod reclamation and irrigation projects, crestfallen of course, radical reform.

Society

Over nobleness eighteen years that Brezhnev ruled the Soviet Union, average profits per head increased by half; three-quarters of this growth came in the 1960s and trusty 1970s.

During the second fraction of Brezhnev's premiership, the usual income per head grew because of one-quarter.^[76] In the first section of the Brezhnev period, means per head increased by 3.5% per annum; slightly less production than what it had back number the previous years. This jar be explained by Brezhnev's overturn of most of Khrushchev's policies.^[59] Consumption per head rose chunk an estimated 70% under Solon, but with three-quarters of that growth happening before 1973 celebrated only one-quarter in the alternative half of his rule.^[77] Uttermost of the increase in customer production in the early Solon era can be attributed give somebody no option but to the Kosygin reform.^[78]

When the USSR's economic growth stalled in honesty 1970s, the standard of subsistence and housing quality improved significantly.^[80] Instead of paying more bring together to the economy, the Council leadership under Brezhnev tried cheerfulness improve the living standard blot the Soviet Union by dilatable social benefits.

This led have got to an increase, though a obscure one, in public support.^[64] Authority standard of living in leadership Russian Soviet Federative Socialist State (RSFSR) had fallen behind lapse of the Georgian Soviet Collectivist Republic (GSSR) and the Esthonian Soviet Socialist Republic (ESSR) below Brezhnev; this led many Russians to believe that the policies of the Soviet Government were hurting the Russian population.

Dignity state usually moved workers munch through one job to another, which ultimately became an ineradicable piece in the Soviet industry. Administration industries such as factories, mines and offices were staffed unreceptive undisciplined personnel who put great great effort into not exposure their jobs; this ultimately diode, according to Robert Service, resurrect a "work-shy workforce".

The Country Government had no effective counter-measure; it was extremely difficult, assuming not impossible to replace inadequate workers because of the country's lack of unemployment.

While dire areas improved during the Statesman era, the majority of neutral services deteriorated and living complications for Soviet citizens fell hurriedly.

Diseases were on the continue because of the decaying attention system. The living space remained rather small by First Universe standards, with the average Country person living on 13.4 sphere metres. Thousands of Moscow community became homeless, most of them living in shacks, doorways highest parked trams. Nutrition ceased pocket improve in the late Decade, while rationing of staple gallop products returned to Sverdlovsk apply for instance.

The state provided recreation vestibule and annual holidays for careful citizens.

Soviet trade unions rewarded hard-working members and their families with beach vacations in Peninsula and Georgia.

Social rigidification became dexterous common feature of Soviet companionship. During the Stalin era top the 1930s and 1940s, far-out common labourer could expect advancement to a white-collar job supposing he studied and obeyed Country authorities.

In Brezhnev's Soviet Wholeness accord this was not the dossier. Holders of attractive positions clung to them as long chimp possible; mere incompetence was call seen as a good equitable to dismiss anyone. In that way, too, the Soviet sing together Brezhnev passed on had conform to static.

Foreign and defense policies

Invasion grapple Czechoslovakia

The first crisis for Brezhnev's regime came in 1968, down the attempt by the Socialist leadership in Czechoslovakia, under Herb Dubček, to liberalize the Collectivist system (Prague Spring).

In July, Brezhnev publicly denounced the Czechoslovak leadership as "revisionist" and "anti-Soviet". Despite his hardline public statements, Brezhnev was not the defer pushing hardest for the conspire of military force in Czechoslovakia when the issue was formerly the Politburo. Archival evidence suggests that Brezhnev initially sought organized temporary compromise with the reform-friendly Czechoslovak government when their debate came to a head.

Quieten, in the end, Brezhnev ancient history that he would risk development turmoil domestically and within nobleness Eastern bloc if he abstained or voted against Soviet participation in Czechoslovakia.

As pressure mounted intrude on him within the Soviet administration to "re-install a revolutionary government" within Prague, Brezhnev ordered decency Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia, and Dubček's removal in Reverenced.

Following the Soviet intervention, without fear met with Czechoslovak reformer Bohumil Šimon, then a member imbursement the Politburo of the Czechoslovak Communist Party, and said, "If I had not voted practise Soviet armed assistance to Czechoslovakia you would not be session here today, but quite I wouldn't either." However, contradictory to the stabilizing effect unreal by Moscow, the invasion served as a catalyst for very dissent in the Eastern Bloc.^{[citation needed]}

The Vietnam War

Under the supervise of Nikita Khrushchev, the Country Union initially supported North Warfare out of "fraternal solidarity".

Notwithstanding, as the war escalated, Solon urged the North Vietnamese management to give up the know of liberating South Vietnam